or the ‘partisans of Ali’. This group not only supported him, they later developed their own theological views and political objectives. As a result, Shi’ism – as opposed to mainstream Sunnism – became a separate political and theological strand within Islam. At the same time, the khawarij (or the ‘dissenters’) emerged as a political splinter group; they considered all other groups except themselves to be heretical and misguided. Despite the brewing tribal rivalry and political factionalism, Caliph Ali tried to work with all the different groups in order to maintain Islamic unity and solidarity; he knew he could not afford to make a mistake at such a critical moment in Islamic history.
Being an acclaimed jurist, Caliph Ali understood more than anyone else the need to apprehend and punish the murderers of Caliph Uthman, but it was not possible to achieve this straight away given the prevailing chaos and disorder within the Islamic State. Caliph Ali’s first and foremost priority was to re-establish a sense of civility and order across Madinah before he could focus his attention on other pressing issues. To make matters worse, the insurgents who were responsible for the murder of Caliph Uthman went underground, and it would have required a thorough investigation in order to identify and apprehend the culprits. A serious miscalculation by the Caliph at this stage would have allowed the insurgents to sow the seeds of further chaos and disorder within the Islamic State. Caliph Ali’s polished diplomatic skills, coupled with his vast knowledge and understanding of Islam, enabled him to negotiate his way through all the political twists and turns. And, as always, his utmost priority was the welfare of his people and the unity of the Muslim ummah (global Islamic community).
No other person could have traversed such a complex and difficult path at such a critical period in Islamic history than the exemplary Caliph Ali. Using his polished negotiating skills and profound grasp of Islamic teachings, he was able to avert an all-out war in the Islamic State on more than one ocassion. When the situation inside Madinah eventually became intolerable, he moved his heartquarters to Kufah. He took this brave decision to prevent Madinah, the city of the Prophet, from becoming a battleground, thus frustrating the insurgents who were determined to turn this sacred city into a war zone. As a truly great champion of Islam, Ali fought tooth and nail to prevent the Muslims from fighting against each other; so much so that he even agreed to sign a truce with his most inveterate enemies in order to prevent war. He preferred to suffer personal humiliation rather than see innocent Muslims lose their lives and livelihood. His love, kindness and generosity turned him into a potent symbol of goodness and rectitude. Even those who disagreed with him never failed to admire his sincerity and wisdom. According to the historians, Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan – who was governor of Syria during the Caliphate of Ali and the leader of those who insisted that the Caliph should identify and apprehend the murderers of Uthman – once asked Dirar ibn Damrah al-Kinani, who was one of his close aides, to comment on Caliph Ali’s character, morals and ability. Dirar responded:
‘He was a man of strong will-power and determination. He always gave a just judgement, and was a fountain of knowledge. His speech was full of wisdom. He hated the pleasure of this world and loved the darkness of night to cry before God. His dress was most simple and he liked simple meals. He lived like a common man and when anybody would put a question before him, he replied with utmost politeness. Whenever we asked him to wait for us he waited like common man. Although he was very near to us because of his high morals, we were afraid of him sometimes of his grandeur and eminence due to his nearness to God. He always respected a pious man and a scholar. He was nearest to the poor. He never allowed a powerful man to take advantage of his power. The weak were never disappointed of his justice. I bear witness that in many a battle he would wake up during the night and take hold of his beard and start to cry and weep before God as though he was in a state of commotion and exclaim: “O world! Do not try to betray me. I have left you long ago. Do not have any desire for me. I hate you. Your age is short and your end is long, and the way is full of danger…”’
On hearing this, Muawiyah apparently wept until his beard was wet and confirmed that Dirar’s description of the qualities and attributes of Caliph Ali was true. During his turbulent reign as Caliph, Ali faced relentless opposition from various factions within the Islamic State. He not only reasoned with his opponents; he also pleaded with them to set their differences aside. He took military action only when all other options for resolving the conflicts were exhausted. By his very nature, Caliph Ali was a man of peace and harmony; indeed, he hated taking military action against fellow Muslims. But when his opponents were determined to fight him, he was not found wanting in that department either, as was the case during the Battles of Camel (jamal) and Siffin; he was courageous and brave enough to make a stand. This won him considerable plaudits from the other prominent companions of the Prophet who supported him during one of the most perilous times in the annals of Islam. There is no doubt that Caliph Ali was one of the most influential figures in Islamic history on account of his vast knowledge of Islam and tremendous contribution to the development of Islam as a religion, culture and way of life. Later, some of his sayings and exhortations were collected and compiled in the form of a book under the title of Nahj al-Balaghah (The Peak of Eloquence); this book is highly rated, especially by the Shi’a Muslims.
Ali was brutally murdered at the age of sixty by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a follower of the renegade khawarij sect. The khawarij initially supported Caliph Ali but they abandoned him after he agreed to resolve his differences with Muawiyah through arbitration (tahkim). The khawarij considered this to be a treacherous act and thus they became his most vociferous opponents. They planned to assassinate Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria, Amr ibn al-As, the famous Muslim military commander and conqueror of Egypt, along with Caliph Ali because they considered them to be the main sources of chaos and disorder (fitna) in the Islamic State. In their twisted understanding of the situation that prevailed in the Islamic State at the time, the khawarij thought that by murdering the three of them in one go they would put an end to the rivalry for the Caliphate. In the event, they only managed to assassinate Caliph Ali (both Muawiyah and Amr escaped similar attempts on their lives), and in so doing they brought the reign of the al-khulafa al-rashidun to an abrupt end. Some of Caliph Ali’s most beautiful sayings and exhortations include:
‘Fear God and you will have no cause to fear anyone else.’
‘A believer always remembers God and is full of thoughts; he is thankful in prosperity and patient in adversity.’
‘Lead such a life in this world that when you die, people may mourn you and while alive they may long for your company.’
‘Knowledge is better than wealth, for you have to protect your wealth whereas knowledge protects you.’
‘Wealth and greed are the roots of all evils and diseases.’
‘Jealousy devours virtue as fire devours fuel.’
IF PIETY, RIGHTEOUSNESS and love for Islam were the only criteria for selection, then after the Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr would certainly have led the way. No other person in the history of Islam can be compared to him when it comes to truthfulness, insight into Islamic teachings and devotion to God and his Prophet. He was so outstanding and unique in his commitment, sincerity and whole-hearted support and assistance to the Prophet from the outset that even the great Caliph Umar eventually confessed that he could not surpass Abu Bakr when it came to utter devotion and single-minded dedication to the cause of Islam. If outstanding leaders like Caliph Umar are rare in human history, then men of exceptional piety, profound wisdom and unusual insight into religious teachings, like Abu Bakr, are even rarer.
Abdullah ibn Abi Quhafah, better known by his patronymic Abu Bakr, was born into the clan of Taym of the noble Quraysh tribe; he was only two years younger than the Prophet himself. They not only became close friends during their early teens, they also had many things in common. This strengthened their friendship as they matured, undertook business expeditions together, and shared their dislike of idolatry and other unjust practices which prevailed in Makkan society at the time. Although a wealthy merchant, Abu Bakr was soft-spoken; kind-hearted and unusually generous in a society where materialism and greed was the order