2007), pp. 82–104.
15 15. Bénédicte Savoy, Patrimoine annexé: les biens culturels saisis par la France en Allemagne autour de 1800, 2 vols (Paris: Éditions de la MSH, 2003).
16 16 Guido Guerzoni, Apollo and Vulcan: The Art Markets in Italy, 1400–1700, trans. Amanda George (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, [2006] 2011).
17 17. Cissie Fairchilds, “The Production and Marketing of Populuxe Goods in Eighteenth-Century Paris,” in John Brewer and Roy Porter, eds, Consumption and the World of Goods (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 228–48.
18 18. Louis Bergeron, Les industries du luxe en France (Paris: Odile Jacob, 1998).
19 19. See Eric Zuelow, ed., Touring Beyond the Nation: A Transnational Approach to European Tourism History (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2011).
20 20. Alain Croix, ed., Initiateurs et entrepreneurs culturels du tourisme (1850–1950), Actes du colloque de Saint-Brieuc, June 2–4, 2010 (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2011).
21 21. See Pierre Bourdieu and Luc Boltanski, La production de l’idéologie dominante (Paris: Demopolis, [1976] 2008).
22 22. A good indicator is the work Le partage des bénéfices, published under the collective name of Darras, which brings together the contributions to a colloquium organized by Pierre Bourdieu in 1965 by sociologists and anthropologists (P. Bourdieu, J.-C. Chamboredon, C. Durand, R. Sainsaulieu, J. Lautman, J. Cuisenier), economists (J.-P. Pagé, C. Gruson, M. Praderie), and statisticians from INSEE (A. Darbel, C. Seibel, J.-P. Ruault). Prefaced by Claude Gruson, a Keynesian economist influenced by social Christianity, then director of INSEE, the work dealt with the fact that “expansion” had not managed to reduce inequality envisaged on several levels: employment, agriculture, schooling, and so on. The papers tended to stress the need for “social mobility.” See Darras, Le partage des bénéfices, expansion et inégalités en France (Paris: Minuit, 1966).
23 23. After the first report of the Club of Rome, in 1972, titled “The Limits to Growth.” See Peter Wagner, Modernity: Understanding the Present (Cambridge: Polity, 2012), pp. 49–52.
24 24. See for example La Gueule ouverte, a successful periodical similar to Charlie Hebdo, published by Pierre Fournier with contributions by Cavanna, Wolinski, Reiser, and Cabu; and also Alain Hervé’s Le Sauvage, similar to Le Nouvel Observateur, where André Gorz was a journalist.
25 25. The number of students grew sixfold between the early 1960s and the first decade of the twenty-first century, from 215,000 to 1.3 million. In 1982, among French people between the ages of twenty-five and fifty-four who were working or actively seeking employment, 2.1 million – that is, 13 percent of this age group – had degrees attesting to post-secondary education. In 2010, the number with similar degrees reached 8 million, or four times as many, and they represented more than a third (36 percent) of people in the workforce between the ages of twenty-five and fifty-four. See Jean-François Léger, “Plus de diplômés, plus d’inégalités territoriales?” Population & Avenir, no. 718 (2014): 4.
26 26. For a detailed description of the reorganization of companies and changes in working conditions, see Luc Boltanski and Ève Chiapello, The New Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Gregory Elliott (London: Verso, [1999] 2005).
27 27. This devaluation of diplomas, which began in the 1980s, became particularly significant starting in the 1990s, and it has only been accentuated since then. In 1982, as we have seen, 2.1 million members of the workforce had higher degrees, while there were 1.6 million workers at the managerial level (cadres); thus there were thirteen members of the workforce with higher degrees for every ten cadres. In 2010, 8 million members of the workforce held higher degrees, while there were 3.6 million cadres, or twenty-two members of the workforce with higher degrees for every ten cadres. In 1990, 45 percent of people with higher degrees were cadres. Twenty years later, the proportion had fallen to 37 percent. At the same time, the territorial distribution of opportunities to get a position as a cadre became more and more unequal: cadres with higher degrees were concentrated in the Paris region and to a lesser extent in the major regional metropolitan centers such as Lyon, Marseille, and Toulouse. See Léger, “Plus de diplômés,” pp. 4–7.
28 28. Here we can speak of the “finite world,” as Zygmunt Bauman does in Globalization: The Human Consequences (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998) and in Wasted Lives: Modernity and its Outcasts (Cambridge: Polity, 2004).
29 29. This conception of culture in terms of “art for art’s sake,” exempt from financial considerations, penetrates even into galleries of contemporary art (despite their orientation toward commerce), which proliferated in the postwar years and sought to break with the compromises of the art market during the occupation (after the Jewish-owned galleries had already been eliminated) by turning toward artists whose work embodied both the rejection of “capitalism” and aesthetic research in its most elitist dimensions. The same phenomenon is found in the domain of publishing. See Julie Verlaine, Les galeries d’art contemporain à Paris: une histoire culturelle du marché de l’art, 1944–1970 (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2012), pp. 23–45.
30 30. Maryvonne de Saint-Pulgent, Jack Lang: batailles pour la culture (Paris: La Documentation française, 2013), p. 56.
31 31. On the shift from ethnographic museums to ecomuseums, see Martine Segalen, La vie d’un musée, 1937–2005 (Paris: Stock, 2005).
32 32. See Nathalie Heinich and Roberta Shapiro, eds, De l’artification: enquêtes sur le passage à l’art (Paris: Éditions de l’EHESS, 2012).
33 33. The delegation for the plastic arts, established in 1982, created twenty-two positions of regional counselor for the plastic arts under the Direction régionale des affaires culturelles (Regional Office for Cultural Affairs) and the same number of Fonds régionaux d’art contemporain (FRAC, Regional Foundations for Contemporary Art).
34 34. The critique of the new cultural policies that had the most significant media impact was probably that of Marc Fumaroli, in L’État culturel: une religion moderne (Paris: De Fallois, 1991).
35 35. See Laurent Jeanpierre and Séverine Sofio, “Chronique d’une mort annoncée: les conservateurs de musée face aux commissaires d’expositions dans l’art contemporain français,” in Frédéric Poulard and Jean-Michel Tobolem, eds, Les conservateurs de musée: atouts et faiblesses d’une profession (Paris: La Documentation française, 2015), pp. 111–39.
36 36. As François Dosse points out, “Guattari va jouer auprès de Jack Lang le rôle d’une boîte à idées”; see François Dosse, Gilles Deleuze et Félix Guattari: biographie croisée (Paris: La Découverte, 2007), p. 450.
37 37. Félix Guattari and Suely Rolnik, Micropolitiques (Paris: Les Empêcheurs de penser en rond/Seuil, 2007), p. 33.
38 38. Philippe Urfalino, “De l’anti-impérialisme américain à la dissolution de la politique culturelle,” Revue française de science politique, 45/5 (1993): 823–49.
39 39. See Thomas Angeletti, “Le laboratoire de la nécessité: économistes, institutions et qualifications de l’économie,” Doctoral thesis in sociology, Paris, EHESS, 2013.
40 40. On the foundation of the economics of conventions, see L’économie des conventions, special issue, Revue économique, 40/2 (1989). See also Laurent Thévenot, “Les investissements de forme,” in Conventions économiques: cahiers du centre d’études de l’emploi (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1985), pp. 21–72, and “Essai sur les objets usuels: propriétés, fonctions, usages,” in Bernard Conein, Nicolas Dodier, and Laurent Thévenot, eds, Les objets dans l’action (Paris: Éditions de l’EHESS, 1993), pp. 85–111. See also Philippe Batifoulier, ed., Théorie des conventions (Paris: Economica, 2001), André Orléan, Analyse économique des conventions (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2004), and Robert Salais, “Conventions de travail, mondes de production et institutions,” L’Homme et la Société, nos. 170–1 (2008–9): 151–74.
41 41. For a synthesis, see Arnaldo Bagnasco and Charles Sabel, PME et développement économique en Europe (Paris: La Découverte, 1994). On the development