Friedman, A.W. (2006). Important determinants of bone strength: beyond bone mineral density. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 12: 70–77.
15 15 Martin, R.M. and Correa, P.H.S. (2010). Bone quality and osteoporosis therapy. Arq. Bras. Endocrinol. Metabol. 54: 186–199.
16 16 Fonseca, H., Moreira‐Gonçalves, D., Coriolano, H.‐J.A., and Duarte, J.A. (2014). Bone quality: the determinants of bone strength and fragility. Sports Med. 44: 37–53.
17 17 Currey, J. (1982). 'Osteons' in biomechanical literature. J. Biomech. 15: 717.
18 18 Gibson, V.A., Stover, S.M., Gibeling, J.C. et al. (2006). Osteonal effects on elastic modulus and fatigue life in equine bone. J. Biomech. 39: 217–225.
19 19 Stover, S.M., Pool, R.R., Martin, R.B., and Morgan, J.P. (1992). Histological features of the dorsal cortex of the third metacarpal bone mid‐diaphysis during postnatal growth in Thoroughbred horses. J. Anat. 181: 455–469.
20 20 Okada, H., Tamamura, R., Kanno, T. et al. (2013). Ultrastructure of cement lines. J. Hard Tissue. Biol. 22: 445–450.
21 21 Nakayama, H., Takakuda, K., Matsumoto, H.N. et al. (2010). Effects of altered bone remodeling and retention of cement lines on bone quality in Osteopetrotic aged c‐Src‐deficient mice. Calcif. Tissue Int. 86: 172–183.
22 22 Schaffler, M.B., Burr, D.B., and Frederickson, R.G. (1987). Morphology of the osteonal cement line in human bone. Anat. Rec. 217: 223–228.
23 23 Burr, D.S., Schaffler, M.B., and Frederickson, R.G. (1988). Composition of the cement line and its possible mechanical role as a local interface in human compact bone. J. Biomech. 21: 939–945.
24 24 Burr, D. (2011). Why bones bend but don't break. J. Musculoskelet. Neuronal Interact. 11: 270–285.
25 25 Boskey, A.L. (2013). Bone composition: relationship to bone fragility and antiosteoporotic drug effects. Bonekey Rep. 2: 447.
26 26 Kulin, R.M., Jiang, F., and Vecchio, K.S. (2011). Loading rate effects on the R‐curve behavior of cortical bone. Acta Biomater. 7: 724–732.
27 27 Adharapurapu, R.R., Jiang, F., and Vecchio, K.S. (2006). Dynamic fracture of bovine bone. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 26: 1325–1332.
28 28 Evans, A.G. (1990). Perspective on the development of high‐toughness ceramics. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 73: 187–206.
29 29 Kirchner, H. (2006). Ductility and brittleness of bone. Int. J. Fract. 139: 509–516.
30 30 Zioupos, P., Kaffy, C., and Currey, J. (2006). Tissue heterogeneity, composite architecture and fractal dimension effects in the fracture of ageing human bone. Int J Frac. 139: 407–424.
31 31 Wasserman, N., Brydges, B., Searles, S., and Akkus, O. (2008). in vivo linear microcracks of human femoral cortical bone remain parallel to osteons during aging. Bone 43: 856–861.
32 32 Ritchie, R.O., Buehler, M.J., and Hansma, P. (2009). Plasticity and toughness in bone. Phys. Today 62: 41–47.
33 33 Behiri, J. and Bonfield, W. (1984). Fracture mechanics of bone – the effects of density, specimen thickness and crack velocity on longitudinal fracture. J. Biomech. 17: 25–34.
34 34 Nalla, R., Kinney, J., and Ritchie, R. (2003). On the fracture of human dentin: is it stress‐or strain‐controlled? J. Biomed. Mater. 67: 484–495.
35 35 Nordin, M. and Frankel, V.H. (2012). Biomechanics of bone. In: Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System, 4e (eds. M. Nordin and V.H. Frankel), 472. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health.
36 36 Morgan, E.F. and Bouxsein, M.L. (2008). Biomechanics of bone and age‐related fractures. In: Principles of Bone Biology, 3e (eds. J.P. Bilezikian, L.G. Raisz and T.J. Martin), 29–51. San Diego: Academic Press.
37 37 Watkins, J.P. and Sampson, S.N. (2019). Fractures of the tibia. In: Equine Fracture Repair, 2e (ed. A.J. Nixon), 648–663. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
38 38 Anthenill, L.A., Gardner, I.A., Pool, R.R. et al. (2010). Comparison of macrostructural and microstructural bone features in Thoroughbred racehorses with and without midbody fracture of the proximal sesamoid bone. Am. J. Vet. Res. 71: 755–765.
39 39 Bramlage, L., Schneider, R., and Gabel, A. (1988). A clinical perspective on lameness originating in the carpus. Equine Vet. J. 20: 12–18.
40 40 Olusa, T.A., Akbar, Z., Murray, C.M., and Davies, H.M. (2020). Morphometric analysis of the intercarpal ligaments of the equine proximal carpal bones during simulated flexion and extension of cadaver limbs. Anat. Histol. Embryol. 50: 1–10.
41 41 O'Brien, F.J., Hardiman, D.A., Hazenberg, J.G. et al. (2005). The behaviour of microcracks in compact bone. Eur. J. Morphol. 42: 71–79.
42 42 Moreno, M.R., Zambrano, S., Dejardin, L.M., and Saunders, W.B. (2017). Bone biomechanics and fracture biology. In: Veterinary Surgery: Small Animal Expert Consult, 2e (eds. S.A. Johnston and K.M. Tobias), 612–648. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier.
43 43 Lopez, M.J. (2019). Bone biology and fracture healing. In: Equine Surgery, 5e (eds. J.A. Auer, J.A. Stick, J.M. Kümmerle and T. Prange), 1255–1269. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
44 44 Markel, M.D. (2019). Fracture biomechanics. In: Equine Fracture Repair, 2e (ed. A.J. Nixon), 12–23. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
45 45 Galante, J., Rostoker, W., and Ray, R.D. (1970). Physical properties of trabecular bone. Calcif. Tissue Int. 5: 236–246.
46 46 Dempster, W.T. and Liddicoat, R.T. (1952). Compact bone as a non‐isotropic material. Am. J. Anat. 91: 331–362.
47 47 Osterhoff, G., Morgan, E.F., Shefelbine, S.J. et al. (2016). Bone mechanical properties and changes with osteoporosis. Injury 47: S11–S20.
48 48 Young, D.R., Nunamaker, D.M., and Markel, M.D. (1991). Quantitative evaluation of the remodeling response of the proximal sesamoid bones to training‐related stimuli in thoroughbreds. Am. J. Vet. Res. 52: 1350–1356.
49 49 Thompson, K.N. and Cheung, T.K. (1994). A finite element model of the proximal sesamoid bones of the horse under different loading conditions. Vet. Comp. Orthop. Traumatol. 7: 35–39.
50 50 Nixon, A.J. (2019). Phalanges and the metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints. In: Equine Surgery, 5e (eds. J.A. Auer, J.A. Stick, J.M. Kümmerle and T. Prange), 1587–1618. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
51 51 Anthenill, L.A.S., Gardner, S.M., Hill, I.A. et al. (2006). Association between findings on palmarodorsal radiographic images and detection of a fracture in the proximal sesamoid bones of forelimbs obtained from cadavers of racing thoroughbreds. Am. J. Vet. Res. 67: 858–868.
52 52 Sanders‐Shamis, M., Bramlage, L.R., and Gable, A.A. (1986). Radius fractures in the horse: a retrospective study of 47 cases. Equine Vet. J. 18: 432–437.
53 53 Fürst, A., Oswald, S., Jäggin, S. et al. (2008). Fracture configurations of the equine radius and tibia after a simulated kick. Vet. Comp. Orthop. Traumatol. 21 (01): 49–58.
54 54 Radcliffe, R.M., Lopez, M.J., Turner, T.A. et al. (2001). An in vitro biomechanical comparison of interlocking nail constructs and double plating for fixation of diaphyseal femur fractures in immature horses. Vet. Surg. 30: 179–190.
55 55 Hance, S.R., Bramlage, L.R., Schneider, R.K., and Embertson, R.M. (1992). Retrospective study of 38 cases of femur fractures in horses less than one year of age. Equine Vet. J. 24: 357–363.
56 56 Nixon, A.J., Bramlage, L.R., and Hance, S.R. (2019). Fractures of the femur. In: Equine Fracture Repair, 2e (ed. A.J. Nixon), 688–705. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
57 57 McDuffee, L.A., Stover, S.M., Taylor, K.T., and Les, C.M. (1994). An in vitro biomechanical investigation of an interlocking nail for fixation of diaphyseal tibial fractures in adult horses. Vet. Surg. 23: 219–230.
58 58 Nixon, A.J. and Watkins, J.P. (2019). Fractures of the Humerus. In: Equine Fracture Repair, 2e (ed. A.J. Nixon), 567–587. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
59 59 Carter, B.G., Schneider, R.K., Hardy, J. et al. (1993). Assessment and treatment