Code and Clay, Data and Dirt, xxxiv-xxxv.
28
Ananny and Crawford, «Seeing without Knowing.»
29
Any list will always be an inadequate account of all the people and communities who have inspired and informed this work. I’m particularly grateful to these research communities: FATE (Fairness, Accountability, Transparency and Ethics) and the Social Media Collective at Microsoft Research, the AI Now Institute at NYU, the Foundations of AI working group at the École Normale Supérieure, and the Richard von Weizsäcker Visiting Fellows at the Robert Bosch Academy in Berlin.
30
Saville, «Towards Humble Geographies.»
31
For more on crowdworkers, see Gray and Suri, Ghost Work; and Roberts, Behind the Screen.
32
Canales, Tenth of a Second.
33
Zuboff, Age of Surveillance Capitalism.
34
Cetina, Epistemic Cultures, 3.
35
«Emotion Detection and Recognition (EDR) Market Size.»
36
Nelson, Tu, and Hines, «Introduction,» 5.
37
Danowski and de Castro, Ends of the World.
38
Franklin, Real World of Technology, 5.
39
Brechin, Imperial San Francisco.
40
Brechin, 29.
41
Agricola quoted in Brechin, 25.
42
Quoted in Brechin, 50.
43
Brechin, 69.
44
See, e. g., Davies and Young, Tales from the Dark Side of the City; and «Grey Goldmine.»
45
For more on the street-level changes in San Francisco, see Bloomfield, «History of the California Historical Society’s New Mission Street Neighborhood.»
46
«Street Homelessness.» See also «Counterpoints: An Atlas of Displacement and Resistance.»
47
Gee, «San Francisco or Mumbai?»
48
H. W. Turner published a detailed geological survey of the Silver Peak area in July 1909. In beautiful prose, Turner extolled the geological variety within what he described as «slopes of cream and pink tuffs, and little hillocks of a bright brick red.» Turner, «Contribution to the Geology of the Silver Peak Quadrangle, Nevada,» 228.
49
Lambert, «Breakdown of Raw Materials in Tesla’s Batteries and Possible Breaknecks.»
50
Bullis, «Lithium-Ion Battery.»
51
«Chinese Lithium Giant Agrees to Three-Year Pact to Supply Tesla.»
52
Wald, «Tesla Is a Battery Business.»
53
Scheyder, «Tesla Expects Global Shortage.»
54
Wade, «Tesla’s Electric Cars Aren’t as Green.»
55
Business Council for Sustainable Energy, «2019 Sustainable Energy in America Factbook.» U. S. Energy Information Administration, «What Is U. S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source?»
56
Whittaker et al., AI Now Report 2018.
57
Parikka, Geology of Media, vii – viii; McLuhan, Understanding Media.
58
Ely, «Life Expectancy of Electronics.»
59
Sandro Mezzadra and Brett Neilson use the term «extractivism» to name the relation between different forms of extractive operations in contemporary capitalism, which we see repeated in the context of the AI industry. Mezzadra and Neilson, «Multiple Frontiers of Extraction.»
60
Nassar et al., «Evaluating the Mineral Commodity Supply Risk of the US Manufacturing Sector.»
61
Mumford, Technics and Civilization, 74.
62
See, e. g., Ayogu and Lewis, «Conflict Minerals.»
63
Burke, «Congo Violence Fuels Fears of Return to 90s Bloodbath.»
64
«Congo ’s Bloody Coltan.»
65
«Congo ’s Bloody Coltan.»
66
«Transforming Intel’s Supply Chain with Real-Time Analytics.»
67
See, e. g., an open letter from seventy signatories that criticizes the limitations of the so-called conflict-free certification process: «An Open Letter.»
68
«Responsible Minerals Policy and Due Diligence.»
69
In The Elements of Power, David S. Abraham describes the invisible networks of rare metals traders in global electronics supply chains: «The network to get rare metals from the mine to your laptop travels through a murky network of traders, processors, and component manufacturers. Traders are the middlemen who do more than buy and sell rare metals: they help to regulate information and are the hidden link that helps in navigating the network between metals plants and the components in our laptops» [89].
70
«Responsible Minerals Sourcing.»
71
Liu, «Chinese Mining Dump.»
72
«Bayan