«In handicrafts and manufacture, the worker makes use of a tool; in the factory, the machine makes use of him. There the movements of the instrument of labor proceed from him, here it is the movements of the machine that he must follow. In manufacture the workers are parts of a living mechanism. In the factory we have a lifeless mechanism which is independent of the workers, who are incorporated into it as its living appendages.» Marx, Das Kapital, 548–49.
121
Luxemburg, «Practical Economies,» 444.
122
Thompson, «Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism.»
123
Thompson, 88–90.
124
Werrett, «Potemkin and the Panopticon,» 6.
125
See, e. g., Cooper, «Portsmouth System of Manufacture.»
126
Foucault, Discipline and Punish; Horne and Maly, Inspection House.
127
Mirzoeff, Right to Look, 58.
128
Mirzoeff, 55.
129
Mirzoeff, 56.
130
Gray and Suri, Ghost Work.
131
Irani, «Hidden Faces of Automation.»
132
Yuan, «How Cheap Labor Drives China’s A. I. Ambitions»; Gray and Suri, «Humans Working behind the AI Curtain.»
133
Berg et al., Digital Labour Platforms.
134
Roberts, Behind the Screen; Gillespie, Custodians of the Internet, 111–40.
135
Silberman et al., «Responsible Research with Crowds.»
136
Silberman et al.
137
Huet, «Humans Hiding behind the Chatbots.»
138
Huet.
139
See Sadowski, «Potemkin AI.»
140
Taylor, «Automation Charade.»
141
Taylor.
142
Gray and Suri, Ghost Work.
143
Standage, Turk, 23.
144
Standage, 23.
145
See, e. g., Aytes, «Return of the Crowds,» 80.
146
Irani, «Difference and Dependence among Digital Workers,» 225.
147
Pontin, «Artificial Intelligence.»
148
Menabrea and Lovelace, «Sketch of the Analytical Engine.»
149
Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, 39–43.
150
Babbage evidently acquired an interest in quality-control processes while trying (vainly) to establish a reliable supply chain for the components of his calculating engines.
151
Schaffer, «Babbage’s Calculating Engines and the Factory System,» 280.
152
Taylor, People’s Platform, 42.
153
Katz and Krueger, «Rise and Nature of Alternative Work Arrangements.»
154
Rehmann, «Taylorism and Fordism in the Stockyards,» 26.
155
Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital, 56, 67; Specht, Red Meat Republic.
156
Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management.
157
Marx, Poverty of Philosophy, 22.
158
Qiu, Gregg, and Crawford, «Circuits of Labour»; Qiu, Goodbye iSlave.
159
Markoff, «Skilled Work, without the Worker.»
160
Guendelsberger, On the Clock, 22.
161
Greenhouse, «McDonald’s Workers File Wage Suits.»
162
Greenhouse.
163
Mayhew and Quinlan, «Fordism in the Fast Food Industry.»
164
Ajunwa, Crawford, and Schultz, «Limitless Worker Surveillance.»
165
Mikel, «WeWork Just Made a Disturbing Acquisition.»
166
Mahdawi, «Domino’s ‘Pizza Checker’ Is Just the Beginning.»
167
Wajcman, «How Silicon Valley Sets Time.»
168
Wajcman, 1277.
169
Gora, Herzog, and Tripathi, «Clock Synchronization.»
170
Eglash, «Broken Metaphor,» 361.
171
Kemeny and Kurtz, «Dartmouth Timesharing,» 223.
172
Eglash, «Broken Metaphor,» 364.
173
Brewer,