to a bull and trampled. Antiope was rescued by her sons, who instead inflict the punishment on Dirce. Here, the boys tie Dirce to a raging bull; her fate is clear.
117. Anonymous. Aphrodite of Melos, called the “Venus de Milo”, c. 100 B.C.E. Marble, h: 202 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.
The Aphrodite of Melos, or Venus de Milo, is an original Greek sculpture dating to the Hellenistic period. It was discovered in a field along with other sculptural fragments, including a separate arm holding an apple, which belongs with this figure. The apple is probably a reference to the mythical “Judgment of Paris”. In that tale, the goddess of Discord tossed a golden apple inscribed “for the loveliest” towards the goddesses Aphrodite, Athena, and Hera. The young Trojan prince, Paris, was asked to decide which goddess should be awarded the apple. Each tried to bribe Paris but he chose Aphrodite, who offered him the love of the most beautiful mortal woman in the world. That woman, of course, was Helen of Sparta, already married to the Greek king. Her abduction by Paris started the Trojan War. While Aphrodite is criticised by Homer for her role in starting the conflict, she is celebrated here as the purveyor of true love.
118. Anonymous. Aphrodite, called the “Venus of Arles”, end of the 1st century B.C.E. Marble, h: 194 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.
119. Anonymous. The Three Graces, Roman copy of a Greek original created during the 2nd century B.C.E., restored in 1609. Marble, 119 × 85 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Greek Antiquity.
The Graces, or Charities, were three goddesses named Beauty, Mirth, and Cheer. They oversaw happy events such as dances and banquets. They were companions to Aphrodite, providing the happiness that accompanies love. Like Aphrodite, they were often depicted in the nude, and often, as in this example, dancing in a circle. In each, we see the familiar shift in weight, or contrapposto, developed in the fifth century. However, the composition of this piece is far more elaborate than any High Classical sculpture. It was not until the Hellenistic period that complex groups of multiple figures were depicted in free-standing sculpture. The figures are tied together by their embrace, unifying the piece, yet they face different directions, so that the sculpture would be interesting from any angle from which it was viewed.
120. Anonymous. Portrait of Octavian, 35–29 B.C.E. Marble, h: 74 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.
121. Anonymous. Augustus Prima Porta, 50 B.C.E. Marble, h: 104 cm. Musei Vaticani, Vatican City (Italy). Roman Antiquity.
Augustus, the first emperor of Rome, transformed the way art and image were used by the Romans. He rejected the “veristic” style of Roman portraiture, preferring instead to emulate the High Classical style of fifth-century Greece. In this portrait, found at the villa of his wife Livia at Prima Porta, Augustus is shown in a pose that directly quotes Polykleitos’ Doryphoros, the best-known statue of the fifth century. In doing so, Augustus called upon all the associations the High Classical period carried: empire and power, but also democracy. Augustus was trying to appease those who might resent his absolute rule and the end of the Republic. He was at once advertising his strength, and also his role as a fair, democratic leader who would represent the senate and the people of Rome.
122. Anonymous. The Orator (L’Arringatore), Funerary Statue of Aulus Metellus, 2nd-1st century B.C.E. Bronze, h: 179 cm. Museo Archeologico, Florence (Italy). Roman Antiquity.
123. Anonymous. Seated Boxer, 100–50 B.C.E. Bronze, h: 128 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.
A rare bronze statue that survived from antiquity, this powerful image of a tired boxer is likely an original Hellenistic work, dated perhaps to the first century B.C.E. The seated pose of the boxer invites the viewer to look down at the figure, as he in turn looks up, perhaps to discover the verdict of the judge. He still wears his boxing gloves, and is badly bruised and bleeding, his face and ears swollen from the fight. Despite these wounds, he does not appear defeated. He has all the exaggerated musculature of other Hellenistic works, such as the Laocoön and the Belvedere Torso. His mouth and the cuts on his face are copper additions to the bronze statue, and the eyes would have likewise been made of a different material.
124. Anonymous. Spinario (Boy removing a Thorn from his Foot), Roman bronze copy of a Greek original, 1st century B.C.E. Bronze, h: 73 cm. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.
This piece is one of the rare bronze works to survive from antiquity. Created by a Roman artist of the Hellenistic-Roman period, it reflects both the interests of Hellenistic artists as well as the tastes of Roman collectors. The sculptors of the Hellenistic and Roman world drew from a much wider range of subjects than did earlier Greek artists. Their commissions came from private citizens and towns rather than only temples. As Rome became the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean, the interests of both collectors and artists began to shift. The “canons” or rules established by Greek artists of earlier periods no longer constrained what artists could do. This representation of a boy removing a thorn from his foot is an example of these innovations, showing a boy in a mundane, everyday act, yet idealised to suit Roman taste. After the statue’s rediscovery in the Middle Ages it became quite influential, and was widely reproduced during the Renaissance.
125. Agasias of Ephesus, Greek. The Fighting Warrior, called the “Borghese Gladiator”, c. 100 B.C.E. Marble, h: 199 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.
This Roman copy of a Greek original dating, perhaps, to the fourth century B.C.E., was rediscovered in the early seventeenth century and acquired by Cardinal Borghese. A wealthy relative of Pope Paul V, he collected hundreds of statues, many of which were ancient, some of which were contemporary pieces in the style of antiquity. Pieces in the Borghese collection often suffered from unfortunate restorations, though this piece seems to have escaped unmarred. It was later purchased by Napoléon Bonaparte, a relative by marriage of the Borghese family. In that way it made its way to Paris. It was long thought to represent a gladiator, but more recently it has been acknowledged that it could as easily be an athlete or warrior. Much has been made of the ideal musculature and anatomy of the subject. The artist clearly sought to emulate as realistically as possible the form, stance, and sinews of the lunging figure.
126. Anonymous. Tellus Relief, panel, east facade, Ara Pacis Augustae, 13–9 B.C.E. Marble, height of the enclosure: 6 m. Rome (Italy). In situ. Roman Antiquity.
With the Ara Pacis Augustae, the Emperor Augustus makes a complex ideological statement. The building was a monument to the lasting peace Augustus achieved by securing the borders of the empire. Carved in relief inside and out, it depicted an array of symbols, each signalling a component of his message. Inside the altar, bucrania and fruit-bearing garlands suggested the fecundity of Rome and the perpetuity of Rome’s sacrificial offerings to the gods. Outside, the ceremonial dedication of the monument itself was depicted, with a procession that calls to mind the Parthenon frieze. In addition, the exterior has four panels with mythological scenes. Like the procession, it is done in the classicising style of Greek art, adopted by Augustus to suggest a long historical basis for his rule of Rome, and also to call to mind democratic ideals, belying his imperial authority. In this panel, the central female figure probably represents Tellus, or Mother Earth. She holds two babies, representing the fertility of Rome and of the Roman people. The theme of fertility and fecundity is emphasised by the plants and animals at her feet.