was simple economical recycling. Rather than quarrying new stone and paying artisans to carve it, pieces could be taken from older monuments and incorporated into a new one. There was an additional, ideological motivation. In the case of Constantine’s arch, he chose reliefs and figures from the greatest moments of the Roman Empire to stress the continuity of his rule with that of past emperors, despite the changes in political structure and religious authority during his rule.
167. Anonymous. The Tetrarchs: Diocletian, Maxentius, Constantius Chlorus and Galerius, 4th century A.D. Porphyry. South facade of the San Marco basilica in Venice (Italy). In situ. Byzantine.
The third century was a turbulent time in the Roman Empire, with constant civil war and a series of military leaders vying for power. When Diocletian became emperor in 284, he chose to solidify his rule by sharing power with his rivals. He established a tetrarchy, or rule by four. Diocletian took the title of Augustus of the east, with a corresponding Augustus of the west, and secondary rulers of east and west called Caesars. Marriages were arranged among members of the tetrarchs’ families to reinforce the relationships. Although this power arrangement was unusual, it was surprisingly effective, and order was maintained until Diocletian retired, at which point the division between east and west fractured the empire for good. This portrait of the four tetrarchs is notably different than earlier portraits of emperors. The classicising style of depiction has been discarded in favour of the native, plebeian style of art, long seen in pieces such as funerary reliefs, but rarely in imperial monuments. Plebeian art is characterised by the stocky proportions and stylised presentation of the body, as seen here. This style was probably introduced to imperial art via the series of military leaders who served as emperor during the third century, and brought with them the plebeian vernacular.
168. Anonymous. Missorium of Theodosius I, 387–388 A.D. Silver partly gilted, diameter: 74 cm. Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid (Spain). Early Christian.
On this engraved and chased silver and ceremonial plate, a complex image of imperial power and piety is shown. Commemorating the tenth year of the rule of Theodosius I, the plate shows the emperor enthroned in a Christ-like pose with a halo above his head. Theodosius banned pagan religions, making Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire. Under Theodosius, there was a “renaissance” of artistic expression in which the pictorial style of the Late Antique is again imbued with Classicism. Constantinople became the cultural centre of the Empire, replacing Rome.
169. Anonymous. Sarcophagus from Acilia, 260–270 A.D. Marble.Palazzo Massino, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.
170. Anonymous. Sarcophagus of Constantina, second third of the 4th century A.D. Porphyry. Museo Pio Clementino Vatican (Italy). Roman Antiquity.
Beginning in the second century, Romans began to favour inhumation, rather than cremation, as a funerary practice. As a consequence, the stone coffins called “sarcophagi” were produced. Each sarcophagus was decorated with more or less elaborate figural scenes, depending on the taste and the wealth of the deceased. The sarcophagi were usually placed within tombs that were frequently visited by the living relations of the deceased, so the effort spent in carving them was appreciated for many years. Christians living within the Roman Empire also preferred inhumation to cremation; in fact, it is possible that Christian customs influenced the change in funerary practices of the pagans. The sarcophagi for Christian burials were decorated, of course, with Christian symbols such as the cross, but many pagan symbols were also co-opted for used by the Christian religion, and so there is frequently a combination of both pagan and Christian iconography on early Christian sarcophagi.
This sarcophagus, made out of rich, purple stone called porphyry, may have been the resting place of Emperor Constantine’s daughter, Constantina. Constantine is generally known as the first Christian emperor, though in fact his real contribution to the cause of Christianity was to legalise and promote the religion. He seems to have converted to Christianity late in his life; he may or may not have been truly faithful. Adding to the mystery of the faith of the emperor is the imagery on his daughter’s sarcophagus. The scenes of winged putti figures could be pagan images of a festival for Bacchus, the god of wine. Alternatively, they could be a Christianised version of the motif, in which the imagery of wine represents the blood of Christ.
171. Anonymous. Portrait Bust of Eutropios, second half of the 5th century A.D. Marble, h: 32 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Austria). Byzantine.
172. Anonymous. Colossal Head of Emperor Constantine I “the Great”, 313–324 A.D. Marble, h: 260 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome (Italy). Roman Antiquity.
Though only fragments of the colossal statue of Emperor Constantine remain, the impressive head, standing over 2.4 metres, conveys the power the seated portrait must have had. It originally stood in the Basilica of Constantine, a massive structure built of concrete barrel and groin vaults. The ingenious groin vaults allowed light to flood the Basilica, illuminating the richly decorated interior and the apse at the west end, where the statue of Constantine sat. The short, cropped hair and beardless face of the emperor was intended to evoke earlier rulers from the golden age of the empire, such as Augustus and Trajan. The fragments that remain are from the head, hands, and feet of the emperor, the only parts of the statue made of marble. The rest would have been made of less expensive materials, such as wood.
173. Anonymous. Theodosius receiving the Tribute of the Barbarians, detail of the base of the Obelisk of Theodosius, 390–393 A.D. Marble, h: 430 cm. Hippodrome, Istanbul (Turkey). In Situ. Roman Antiquity/Byzantine.
This sculpted base was created to hold an obelisk imported to Constantinople, modern Istanbul, from Egypt by the Emperor Theodosius. The obelisk was erected at the ancient Hippodrome, where chariot racing was held. On each side of the base, Theodosius is shown along with members of his family and court, seated at the Hippodrome. Surrounded by a crowd of faces, he watches the races and observes the obelisk as it is raised. The scenes memorialise the accomplishment of obtaining and erecting the obelisk, and also remind all who would see it that Theodosius was responsible. The flat depiction of the figures, the lack of perspective or three-dimensional space, and the varying scale of the figures is more indicative of the art of the Middle Ages than that of the Roman Empire.
174. Anonymous. Sarcophagus with Biblical Scenes, c. 390 A.D. Marble (moulding). Basilica Sant’Ambrogio, Milan (Italy). Early Christian.
175. Anonymous. Sarcophagus of Traditio Legis, Christ Handing the Law to St Peter, c. 390 A.D. Marble (moulding). Basilica Sant’Ambrogio, Milan (Italy). Early Christian.
176. Anonymous. Sarcophagus with Symbolic Decoration, c. 500 A.D. Marble. Basilica Sant’Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna (Italy). Early Christian.
177. Anonymous. Sarcophagus said “of St Barbatian”, second quarter of the 5th century A.D. Marble. Cathedral, Ravenna (Italy). Early Christian.
178. Anonymous. Sarcophagus, called “Sarcophagus of Archbishop Theodore”, end of the 5th century, beginning of the 6th century A.D. Marble. Basilica Sant’Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna (Italy). Early Chirstian
The peacock was a powerful symbol in early Christianity. It served as a symbol of immortality, since it sheds and renews its feathers annually. It was also believed that the flesh of a peacock will not decompose upon its death, symbolic