the surface the apex remains within the seed-coats, evidently absorbing the still abundant contents. The summit or crown of the arch, when it first protrudes from the seed and is still buried beneath the ground, is simply rounded; but before it reaches the surface it is developed into a conical protuberance of a white colour (owing to the absence of chlorophyll), whilst the adjoining parts are green, with the epidermis apparently rather thicker and tougher than elsewhere. We may therefore conclude that this conical protuberance is a special adaptation for breaking through the ground,** and answers the same end as the knife-like white crest on the summit of the straight cotyledon of the Gramineae.
* This is the expression used by Sachs in his 'Text-book of Botany.'
** Haberlandt has briefly described ('Die Schutzeinrichtungen … Keimpflanze,' 1877, p. 77) this curious structure and the purpose which it subserves. He states that good figures of the cotyledon of the onion have been given by Tittmann and by Sachs in his 'Experimental Physiologie,' p. 93. [page 60]
After a time the apex is drawn out of the empty seed-coats, and rises up, forming a right angle, or more commonly a still larger angle with the lower part, and occasionally the whole becomes nearly straight. The conical protuberance, which originally formed the crown of the arch, is now seated on one side, and appears like a joint or knee, which from acquiring chlorophyll becomes green, and increases in size. In rarely or never becoming perfectly straight, these cotyledons differ remarkably from the ultimate condition of the arched hypocotyls or epicotyls of dicotyledons. It is, also, a singular circumstance that the attenuated extremity of the upper bent portion invariably withers and dies.
A filament, 1.7 inch in length, was affixed nearly upright beneath the knee to the basal and vertical portion of a cotyledon; and its movements were traced during 14 h. in the usual manner. The tracing here given (Fig. 47) indicates circumnutation. The movement of the upper part above the knee of the same cotyledon, which projected at about an angle of 45o above the horizon, was observed at the same time. A filament was not affixed to it, but a mark was placed beneath the apex, which was almost white from beginning to wither, and its movements were thus traced. The figure described resembled pretty closely that above given; and this shows that the chief seat of movement is in the lower or basal part of the cotyledon.
Fig. 47. Allium cepa: circumnutation of basal half of arched cotyledon, traced in darkness on horizontal glass, from 8.15 A.m. to 10 P.m. Oct. 31st. Movement of bead magnified about 17 times.
Asparagus officinalis (Asparageae).—The tip of a straight plumule or cotyledon (for we do not know which it should be called) was found at a depth of .1 inch beneath the surface, and the earth was then removed all round to the dept of .3 inch. a glass filament was affixed obliquely to it, and the movement of the bead, magnified 17 times, was traced in darkness. During the first 1 h. 15 m. the plumule moved to the right, and during the next two hours it returned in a roughly parallel but strongly zigzag course. From some unknown cause it had grown up through the soil in an inclined direction, and now through apogeotropism it moved during nearly 24 h. in [page 61] the same general direction, but in a slightly zigzag manner, until it became upright. On the following morning it changed its course completely. There can therefore hardly be a doubt that the plumule circumnutates, whilst buried beneath the ground, as much as the pressure of the surrounding earth will permit. The surface of the soil in the pot was now covered with a thin layer of very fine argillaceous sand, which was kept damp; and after the tapering seedlings had grown a few tenths of an inch in height, each was found surrounded by a little open space or circular crack; and this could be accounted for only by their having circumnutated and thus pushed away the sand on all sides; for there was no vestige of a crack in any other part.
In order to prove that there was circumnutation, the move-
Fig. 48. Asparagus officinalis: circumnutation of plumules with tips whitened and marks placed beneath, traced on a horizontal glass. A, young plumule; movement traced from 8.30 A.m. Nov. 30th to 7.15 A.m. next morning; magnified about 35 times. B, older plumule; movement traced from 10.15 A.m. to 8.10 P.m. Nov. 29th; magnified 9 times, but here reduced to one-half of original scale.
ments of five seedlings, varying in height from .3 inch to 2 inches, were traced. They were placed within a box and illuminated from above; but in all five cases the longer axes of the figures described were directed to nearly the same point; so that more light seemed to have come through the glass roof of the greenhouse on one side than on any other. All five tracings resembled each other to a certain extent, and it will suffice to give two of them. In A (Fig. 48) the seedling was only .45 of an [page 62] inch in height, and consisted of a single internode bearing a bud on its summit. The apex described between 8.30 A.m. and 10.20 P.m. (i.e. during nearly 14 hours) a figure which would probably have consisted of 3½ ellipses, had not the stem been drawn to one side until 1 P.m., after which hour it moved backwards. On the following morning it was not far distant from the point whence it had first started. The actual amount of movement of the apex from side to side was very small, viz. about 1/18th of an inch. The seedling of which the movements are shown in Fig. 48, B, was 1¾ inch in height, and consisted of three internodes besides the bud on the summit. The figure, which was described during 10 h., apparently represents two irregular and unequal ellipses or circles. The actual amount of movement of the apex, in the line not influenced by the light, was .11 of an inch, and in that thus influenced .37 of an inch. With a seedling 2 inches in height it was obvious, even without the aid of any tracing, that the uppermost part of the stem bent successively to all points of the compass, like the stem of a twining plant. A little increase in the power of circumnutating and in the flexibility of the stem, would convert the common asparagus into a twining plant, as has occurred with one species in this genus, namely, A. scandens.
Phalaris Canariensis (Gramineae).—With the Gramineae the part which first rises above the ground has been called by some authors the pileole; and various views have been expressed on its homological nature. It is considered by some great authorities to be a cotyledon, which term we will use without venturing to express any opinion on the subject.* It consists in the present case of a slightly flattened reddish sheath, terminating upwards in a sharp white edge; it encloses a true green leaf, which protrudes from the sheath through a slit-like orifice, close beneath and at right angles to the sharp edge on the summit. The sheath is not arched when it breaks through the ground.
The movements of three rather old seedlings, about 1½ inch in height, shortly before the protrusion of the leaves, were first traced. They were illuminated exclusively from above; for, as will hereafter be shown, they are excessively sensitive to the * We are indebted to the Rev. G. Henslow for an abstract of the views which have been held on this subject, together with references. [page 63]
action of light; and if any enters even temporarily on one side, they merely bend to this side in slightly zigzag lines. Of the three tracings one alone (Fig. 49) is here given. Had the observations been more frequent during the 12 h. two oval figures would have been described with their longer axes at right angles to one another. The actual amount of movement of the apex from side to side was about .3 of an inch. The figures described by the other two seedlings resembled to a certain extent the one here given.
Fig. 49. Phalaris Canariensis: circumnutation of a cotyledon, with a mark placed below the apex, traced on a horizontal glass, from 8.35 A.m. Nov. 26th to 8.45 A.m. 27th. Movement of apex magnified 7 times, here reduced to one-half scale.
A seedling which had just broken through the ground and projected only ½0th of an inch above the surface, was next observed in the same manner as before. It was necessary to clear away the earth all round the seedling to a little depth in order to place a mark beneath the apex. The figure (Fig. 50) shows that the apex moved to one side, but changed its course ten times in the course of the ten hours of observation; so that there can be no doubt about its circumnutation. The cause of the general movement in one direction could hardly be attributed to the entrance of lateral light, as this was carefully guarded against; and we suppose it was in some manner connected with the removal of the earth round the little seedling.
Fig. 50. Phalaris Canariensis: circumnutation of a very young cotyledon, with a mark placed below the apex, traced on a horizontal glass, from 11.37 A.m. to 9.30 P.m. Dec. 13th. Movement of apex greatly magnified, here reduced to one-fourth of original scale.
Lastly,