prayer. Much of Hyun-ju’s practice simply consists in listening to people’s problems and giving advice, much like a counselor.
Many of today’s elite Koreans make use of gut, just as Queen Min did in the nineteenth century. Members of chaebol families (chaebol being the large family-run business groups that dominate the economy) have been reported to pay for services for purposes ranging from business success to personal matters, as have politicians seeking electoral success. Hyun-ju has had several business, politician, and celebrity clients; she claims to have foretold the bankruptcy of one of her wealthiest patrons, after having seen a vision of him in rags.
Animism and Mountain Spirits
Musok is so broad and practical it is very hard to pin down as a system of beliefs and behaviors. However, stemming from Korea’s ancient past, it is fundamentally a form of animism. In animism, every natural entity in existence has a spirit or life force in the same way that people do—even things Westerners consider inanimate, like rocks and trees.
Some natural features hold more power than others. For instance, some multicentenarian pine trees are considered to have a character or personality of their own. A powerful tree can be a benefactor or village guardian, providing good fortune and serving as the focal point of the community. It was the practice of village elders to hold meetings around some of these trees in order to reach important decisions. Such venerable beings may have a temper when mistreated, though: one tree in the town of Gimje was said to bring bad luck on the house of anyone who took even one of its leaves. In the case of an angry tree, musok-in could offer gut ceremonies to it by way of placation.
Animals may also have a spiritual role. The tiger, which features prominently in the creation myth and is the national animal of Korea, was said to be a messenger of mountain spirits and a spiritual protector in its own right. However, the most important repositories of animist spirits in Korea are the mountains. Seventy percent of the peninsula is mountainous, so it seems natural that the tall peaks of Baekdu-san, Jiri-san, and Halla-san in particular have a great hold over the Korean psyche. Ascending the mountains has always been considered a way of getting closer to the spirit world, and thus there is a strong tradition of shamanistic practice at high altitude.
There is no ranking system for the spiritual power of mountains, and each musok-in will have her own auspicious peaks. However, certain mountains are widely understood to be more important than others. Halla-san, the tallest mountain in South Korea, is located on Jeju Island, a place known for its deep shamanistic culture and, according to some, for the historic use of gwangdae beoseot, magic mushrooms, in shamanic practice. Halla-san was so revered by locals that in 1901 a visiting journalist from Germany, Siegfried Genthe, was told by the governor, “You may at no price climb Halla.” The people believed that such an act would anger the mountain god and bring ruinous weather and a bad harvest in revenge.
One mountain in Seoul—Inwang-san—is a hotbed of gut and other ritualistic activity, so much so that the local authorities have erected signs discouraging it. For, on its slopes is Guksadang, the former shamanic shrine of the royal family, which was relocated from Namsan, another mountain beloved of musok-in (including Hyun-ju, who lives there). Guksadang is believed to enshrine the spirit of King Taejo, the founder of the Joseon dynasty. As the royal shrine, it was once private and forbidden. In today’s republic, however, it is open to all, and it is tended to by musok-in who visit it daily in order to practice their skills. There are many public shrines throughout Korea, and, like Guksadang, they are typically located on hills and mountains. They vary greatly in size and state of repair. Private shrines are also kept by gangshinmu musok-in. Hyun-ju, for instance, has one in her home, dedicated to her Chinese monk.
To the untrained eye, Guksadang resembles a small Korean Buddhist temple, but on virtually any day one can watch musok-in perform rituals such as the cutting of animal entrails (in place of a live sacrifice, which would be illegal), utter incantations, and dance. A small convenience store near Guksadang sells pollack, a fish commonly used in shamanic ceremonies, among its soft drinks and newspapers.
Inwang-san and the Guksadang shrine lie close by Cheong Wa Dae (the Blue House), South Korea’s presidential mansion, which is located behind the main palace of the Joseon dynasty, Gyeongbokgung. Just a short distance away from these focal points of power in the country’s capital, this mountain is the busiest site in all of Korean shamanism. This fact is less widely acknowledged than one would expect, which is testament to the paradoxical status Musok retains as a mysterious, non-mainstream set of activities that are in fact integral to Korean culture.
The Enduring Influence
Unlike Japanese Shinto, another set of animistic beliefs that became a vehicle for the state’s ideology in Meiji Japan and has been somewhat standardized in its rituals, Musok remains disparate. Its countless gods are worshipped in ways depending on the individual character of the musok-in and of the teachers who initiated her. Although a small number of deities are widely accepted, such as the Seven Star God (concerned with longevity), the Dragon King God (sailing and fishing), and the House-Beam God (household prosperity), even these are not worshipped in the same way by all.
This fluidity or malleability is amply shown by the nature of one of the most popular gods, Sanshin (the mountain god). While each mountain has its own god, which one may follow, it is also possible to worship this general mountain deity. He is usually represented as a bearded, old man, frequently accompanied by a tiger, but sometimes Sanshin is depicted as a woman. Since there are both male and female gods, and certain mountains are considered feminine—Gyeryong-san, for example—this is not inappropriate.
Pictures of Sanshin can be found at the majority of Buddhist temples in Korea, testament to the syncretic nature of spiritual practice in this country. Buddhism has blended with shamanism since it first arrived in the fourth century, and today a great many Buddhists consult with musok-in when they confront a dilemma or misfortune. The first interview this author sought with Hyun-ju had to be postponed because it coincided with the run-up to Buddha’s Birthday, a period when many of her Buddhist clients seek to consult with her about the future. At Inwang-san, a rock formation called Seonbawi (Zen Rock) is important to Buddhists; it lies less than a stone’s throw from Guksadang and is considered by local musok-in too to have spiritual power.
Even Korean Christians, who tend to disparage shamanism as “mumbo-jumbo” (in the words of one churchgoer) manifest certain Musok-derived influences in their activities. Christians have a tradition of holding prayer meetings in the mountains, for instance. Furthermore, materialism of the God-wants-you-to-be-rich variety appears to be much more prevalent in Christianity in Korea than elsewhere in Asia. Arguably, this relates the practical or materialistic aspect of shamanism that is still manifest today. Performing a Musok ritual at the opening of a shop is not so different from praying to God for long lines of customers.
Perhaps Musok’s most important gifts to Korea are practicality and flexibility. Having no set of commandments, fixed set of practices, or hierarchy of authorized gods, it accommodates and encourages pragmatism. To the end of achieving one’s goals, an adherent can consult different musok-in about the same problem and combine their counsel with the comfort taken from other religions. Hyun-ju even advises followers to “not believe (in Musok) too much”, for it can become addictive, like a drug if taken too far and thus detrimental to the follower. After all, the true purpose of Musok should be simply to help people. She may question her own ability, granting that not all her prophecies are correct, and jokes that if she were right one hundred percent of the time, she would be extremely rich. The most common misunderstanding about Musok, according to Hyun-ju, is that the practitioner has unlimited power to know, and do, anything.
These aspects of Musok—flexibility, pragmatism, openness to doubt, and easy acceptance of other beliefs—have had a positive effect on religious tolerance in general in Korea, and probably on Korean culture as well. A willingness to adapt has proven to be one of this country’s most fortunate possessions.
Chapter 2
Buddhism
One