of temples such as Bulguksa, which was in a state of disrepair prior to his intervention in 1969.
Today, 23 percent of the population counts itself as Buddhist. Buddhism trails Christianity slightly in terms of its number of adherents, and it has less influence: according to the 2005 census, 29.2 percent are Christian, and the percentage of Christians in high-ranking government and corporate positions is higher. Notably, an estimated 40 percent of South Koreans are believed to have no religious faith at all. Yet, Korea still needs Buddhism, as can be witnessed every time one visits a beautifully restored temple and sees the devotees absorbed in prayer and meditation.
The Influence of Buddhism on Korea
Buddhism teaches that life is full of suffering, caused by the “three poisons” of desire, aversion, and delusion. These are the fundamental cause of the bad karma that traps us in a continuing cycle of rebirth and suffering. The way to escape this fate is to follow the Eightfold Path prescribed by the Buddha and consisting in “right intention,” “right action,” and so on—in other words, ways of thinking and behaving that are selfless and bring one nearer to the path of enlightenment. The ultimate goal is to reach “awakening,” breaking the cycle of rebirth and achieving a kind of nothingness, thus escaping from suffering.
Korean Buddhism follows the Mahayana tradition, one of the two dominant divisions within Buddhism. In comparison to Theravada, the other division, Mahayana is considered more theologically liberal and “universal,” and even flexible or relativist, in that it allows for “relative truth.” Something is true or false depending on whether it is spiritually positive or not; whether it is objectively true is of less importance. From this perspective, other forms of belief could be accepted so long as they helped the believer on the path he or she needs to be on. Buddha in this tradition is more than a mere human, and there are different Buddhas for different purposes: a healing Buddha, an education Buddha, and a compassionate Buddha, for instance. In fact, there is a limitless potential number of Buddhas in Mahayana. This relativism and the multiplication of Buddhas with semi-divine qualities compares on some level to shamanism, in which people worship different gods and spirits depending on what they want to achieve.
Although philosophically different, the two belief systems of shamanism and Buddhism were spiritually compatible, because of their practicality and openness. To the present day, Korea enjoys a high level of tolerance for different faiths and an aptitude for syncretizing them in combinations that may seem illogical to outsiders.
Mahayana also contains the concept of the bodhisattva—the enlightened person who is concerned not only with their own state but with the enlightenment of others, too. In order to assist others in reaching enlightenment, the bodhisattva must attain “six perfections,” namely, the perfections of giving, discipline, forbearance, diligence, meditation, and transcendent wisdom. Mastery of these six perfections encourages selflessness and devotion to others, yet with a strong emphasis on personal development.
Another key aspect of Buddhism that has influenced Korean society and culture is the Sangha. Sangha, which means “assembly” or “community,” is understood in two ways. It either describes Buddhist monks and nuns collectively, or it denotes the wider group of followers of Buddhism with higher levels of spiritual understanding. The members of the Sangha work together to help each other pursue improvement, rather than seek merely to benefit themselves as individuals.
Korean friendships can encompass an extraordinary level of self-sacrifice. There is also a strong degree of loyalty to group structures. For example, Koreans may feel obliged to extend a helping hand to a fellow graduate from their school or military unit, even when they may not have a close relationship with the person in question. This relates strongly to jeong, which is explored in detail in chapter 7. Among the reasons why the concept of jeong developed in Korea is the existence of the Sangha and the boddhisatva, which encouraged selflessness and group-mindedness.
According to Professor Kim Ui-cheol, president of the Asian Association of Social Psychology, the concept of Sangha carries over into and influences the way businesses are managed, as well. Indeed, the Sangha’s efforts to collectively and continuously improve itself find their parallel in the corporate management philosophies of companies like Samsung of South Korea and Toyota of Japan. Western students of business will know the Japanese term kaizen (which translates as “gaeseon” in Korean), which is about making continuous, incremental improvements to one’s business processes. This key business concept shows obvious Buddhist influence. The importance of collectivity is also reflected in Korean businesses, for the progress or success of a company is considered a reflection of group effort, not the triumph of a single leader. Unlike in the United States, there are no rock-star CEOs with nine-figure stock option payouts in Korea.
If one considers the products of Samsung, one may observe that they are never truly original, unlike those made by “individualistic” American firms like Apple. However, where Samsung excels is in taking the big ideas of others and refining them to near-perfection. This ability to perfect the products of others stems from a laser-like focus on continuous improvement, which owes as much to Buddhist thinking here as it does in Japan.
Overcoming
According to Professor Kim, Buddhism should be credited for Korea’s higher than average capacity for overcoming obstacles. In Buddhism, one can escape one’s karma through enlightenment, which comes about through continuous self-improvement and self-cultivation. Hinduism teaches an acceptance of fate, but at a deep level Buddhism is about transcending fate by improving oneself. As a consequence of their Buddhist (as well as Confucian) heritage, Koreans constantly seek to improve themselves and ameliorate their condition. Study doesn’t stop with a college degree. Middle-aged people will engage in vocational study in order to get ahead at work, and even many older Koreans will take up the study of foreign languages. During the Korean War, up to one a third of the population was made homeless, yet the imperative to learn was so strong that universities set up tents in the mountains and students would receive lectures there by gaslight.
Generally tolerant and even receptive in the face of new religions and ideas, the Korean character does not resign itself in the face of tragedy and misfortune. People believe in their power to overcome almost any situation. Indeed, the greatest illustration of this Korean mindset is the way the nation has overcome the terrible consequences of war and poverty to forge a wealthy, stable democracy in just two generations. Buddhism may not be responsible for the Korean miracle, but it certainly contributed to the Koreans’ ability to believe the miracle was achievable—and indeed to achieve it.
The desire for continuous improvement in Korean culture comes from Buddhism. However, the choice of method that Koreans usually take to effect their improvement—the relentless pursuit of education—is strongly influenced by another foreign belief system: Confucianism.
Chapter 3
Confucianism
Confucianism is the last of the three main ancient philosophical and religious influences on Korean society. However, while the last two established a syncretic relationship with each other, Confucianism at its peak allowed little room for competing traditions—despite having a certain complementariness with both of the other traditions. A form of Confucianism was the state ideology during the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), and it left profound traces on Korean society in its hierarchicalism, age and gender bias, reverence for parents, and emphasis on education.
What is Confucianism?
Confucianism is not a religion but rather a system of moral philosophy that originated in China in the teachings of Kong Fuzi (558–471 BCE), a thinker known in the West as Confucius. It has exerted considerable influence over not just China but also Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and other East Asian states. At its heart is a belief that humans are improvable through cultivation and moral action, and that collectively, a harmonious society can be created when all members fulfill certain obligations.
There are several key obligations. The first is ren, the necessity to treat others within the community with humanity. In