the bearing obtained from a traditional compass will nearly always be steadier than following that from its satellite-driven GPS cousin. The location of the foot of some routes is given by a bearing from a prominent feature for some crags to aid their location in poor visibility.
Access rights
The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 established statutory rights of responsible access to land and inland water for outdoor recreation and crossing land. These are known as Scottish access rights. The Scottish Outdoor Access Code (available from www.snh.gov.uk) gives detailed guidance on the responsibilities of those exercising access rights and of those managing land and water. The Act sets out where and when access rights apply, and how land should be managed with regard to access. The Code defines how access rights should be exercised.
Loch Avon, Carn Etchachan and the Shelter Stone Crag
The three principles for responsible access apply to both the public and land managers.
Respect the interests of other people – be considerate, respect privacy and livelihoods and the needs of those enjoying the outdoors.
Care for the environment – look after the places you visit and enjoy, and care for wildlife and historic sites.
Take responsibility for your own actions – the outdoors cannot be made risk-free for people exercising access rights; land managers should act with care for people’s safety.
Equipment
Ice axe and crampons are essential for any winter outing, whether walking or climbing. For climbing it is assumed that two tools are used, with either curved or inclined picks. Climbing with leashless tools is becoming more popular at all grades – however, they lend themselves particularly to the higher grades. Unless you are very confident with these tools, lanyards connecting them to your harness are recommended.
Crampons should have front points and be adjusted accurately to fit the boots. They should be securely attached to the boots by either straps or a clip-on arrangement. The boots themselves should be rigid, with a good sole for step-kicking, and be able to take crampons. Ill-fitting crampons can be a positive danger in winter.
For any winter climbing a helmet should be considered mandatory. There is always the risk of being hit by falling ice, even from the most skilled and considerate leader. Besides, a helmet provides good insulation from the cold!
A normal rack of gear covering a reasonable range of crack sizes is usually sufficient. Camming devices can still work well on granite in winter if the interior of the cracks are ice-free, but should always be treated more carefully than in summer. A few pegs may be necessary on some routes, but the majority of climbs, especially on buttresses, can be done safely without them. Ice screws are obviously needed on ice routes. One or two drive-in/screw-out pegs such as warthogs, or bulldog-style ice hooks, are quite versatile and can be invaluable when hammered into frozen turf if nothing else is available. Try to match the gear to the climb and avoid being burdened by unnecessary weight.
A complete water- and windproof shell outer layer is necessary, as is spare clothing and food. A synthetic belay jacket that can be pulled on over a waterproof shell is also useful in a team. As the name suggests this can be worn by the belayer, who seconds the pitch wearing it and then passes it over to his/her partner before starting to lead the next pitch. Also essential is a head-torch and adequate battery power. A bivvy bag of some type is a worthwhile addition. Extra gloves are extremely useful, especially in damper conditions, when having dry and, hence, warm hands for at least part of the day is something to be savoured. Several extra pairs may be worthwhile in certain conditions. Even the best climbers will not be able to complete their route if they do not learn what to wear, and how to wear it, in order to keep warm and comfortable.
Mobile phones
Coverage is mostly good, but users should be aware of the limitations of mobile phones, especially if tucked away inside any of the corries or deeper glens. When using a mobile phone to raise the alarm, dial 999 or the local police station and ask for Mountain Rescue, give your number to the police and remain switched on until the rescue team arrives or you are given the all clear to switch off. Remember that your phone will make 999 calls on any available network, so it is worth trying even if your phone shows no coverage on your network, and whether or not there is credit on your account. Texting is often a useful of way of preserving battery life.
Avalanches
Avalanches occur in the Cairngorms and on Creag Meagaidh every year, often with tragic results. Anyone intending to climb or walk in the Scottish mountains in winter is strongly advised to acquaint themselves with a basic understanding of avalanches. As well as various courses and lectures which are available during the winter months, there exist some excellent books on the subject, with A Chance in a Million by Barton and Wright being the classic text on avalanches in Scotland. The ability to judge the likelihood and consequences of an avalanche, and to know what to do in the event of an avalanche incident, could save lives.
Snow and avalanche
A basic knowledge of how and why avalanches occur is a prerequisite for learning how to avoid them. Storm cycles and changing weather conditions tend to build up a highly layered mountain snowpack. Avalanches usually occur when the bonds between adjacent layers, or that between the snowpack and the ground, fails. Changes that occur over time both within and between these layers can increase or decrease snow stability, depending on the circumstances.
Different types of avalanches exist and are generally classified according to their physical characteristics. An avalanche can release from a single point or a whole area (loose or slab); it may be the whole snow cover or only part of it that slides (full or partial depth); and it can be channelled or not (confined or unconfined). It may also be airborne or flow along the ground.
A full-depth avalanche on The Great Slab, Coire an Lochain
Avalanches are initiated because of either changing internal factors, such as bonds between layers being weakened by rising temperatures, or external factors, such as snowfall or a person walking or skiing on the slope. The details of the release process are complex and poorly understood. However, some basic principles are well known. Avalanches can release on slopes between about 20° and 60°, although slopes between 30° and 45° are the most likely to release, with about 38° being the optimum angle for slab avalanches. Above about 60° snow tends to slide off in small sluffs rather than building up to reach dangerous quantities. The greatest danger usually exists during and for approximately 24 hours after a period of heavy snowfall. This danger period is longer in cold temperatures, when the snow consolidates more slowly. Thaws, especially if accompanied by rain, produce a wet-snow hazard, as well as the danger of collapsing cornices. Even in the absence of snowfall or thaw, a significant avalanche hazard may be created by the wind redepositing the snowpack.
Avalanche types
There are various types of avalanche, and these tend to occur under different conditions and present different degrees of hazard.
Powder or loose snow avalanches typically occur during, or right after, a snowfall. Usually the failure begins at a point and spreads out down the slope in an inverted V shape. They are generally small in size, but in the confines of a gully they can be unpleasant and are sometimes large enough to knock a climber off.
A slab avalanche
Sgor an Lochain Uiane and An Garbh Choire from Ben Macdui (Cairntoul/Braeriach Amphitheatre)
A slab avalanche, on the other hand, occurs when a cohesive slab of snow slides on a weak layer. They are the most common, least predictable