of landscape. It is a huge area of nearly 60,000sq km (according to the official statistics of Kargil and Leh districts), similar in size to Croatia or Latvia. Its highest point stands at 7672m (Saser Kangri in the Ladakhi part of the Karakoram); the lowest at about 2650m. Human habitation is found within an altitude range of some 2000m.
Officially the region consists of two districts: Leh and Kargil, both within the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The sub-regions of Ladakh are usually defined as follows:
Central Ladakh is the region along the Indus River between Upshi and Khalatse.
Nubra consists of the valley of the Shayok River between its sharp turn towards the northwest, down through the confluence with the Nubra River, to its narrow section at the Line of Control (the Indian/Pakistani border and the boundary of Ladakh), together with the Nubra Valley.
Changtang is considered to be the high-altitude plains of Eastern Ladakh, with Rupshu to the south and Pangong, Changchenmo and Aksai Chin (under Chinese control) to the north. This is a continuation of the Changtang of Western Tibet, where the mountain ranges are less pronounced and a number of vast lakes are situated.
Zanskar is the southwestern part of Ladakh, north of the Great Himalayas, made up of the area around the tributary rivers that form the Zanskar River and the early part of the Zanskar River valley.
Western or Lower Ladakh consists of the relatively lower-altitude Suru, Mulbekh, Bodhkarbu and Kargil areas, where the climate is correspondingly more moderate and the growing season longer.
Climate
High altitude, isolation from the rains of the summer monsoon and the vast altitude range within the region are the main factors dictating the nature of the Ladakhi climate. Precipitation is almost totally limited to snow, which falls mostly in the high mountains. The gradual melting of glaciers and snow throughout the year is the main source of water, enabling agriculture and human habitation. It is generally sunny, but clear skies lead to a rapid loss of ground warmth via thermal radiation during the night. There is therefore a great range in temperature throughout the day all year round, and even between a place in the shade and one in direct sunlight. The combination of high mountains, deep valleys and vast temperature differences creates wind that, although not usually strong, is a constant feature.
Plants and animals
At first glance, the mountains seem to be completely barren. However, even the driest slopes are covered by sparse grasses, perennials and small shrubs. Meadows are found in the wide high-altitude valleys, of which Nyimaling is probably one of the most beautiful. Bigger shrubs, like seabuckthorn or willow, grow only on the valley floors, by rivers. Trees are limited to riverbanks or irrigated places at elevations around 3000m or lower. Agriculture is restricted to land where irrigation is possible; the main crops are barley, wheat and peas.
A poplar tree in Zanskar in autumn
Surprisingly, despite the scarce resources, the wildlife of the region is quite diverse: there are about 250 species of birds and 30 of mammals. These include the black-necked crane, Himalayan snowcock, golden eagle, bharal (Himalayan blue sheep), Tibetan wild ass, marmot and snow leopard. It is not uncommon to see many of these during a trek; you will certainly see a good number of birds, bharals and marmots. Although snow leopards are extremely shy and very rare, there is always a chance of spotting one (the author once saw one on the way from the Kungski La, just west of Hemis National Park).
History
The main aspects of the culture of Ladakh are its fascinating history and Buddhist heritage. For many centuries, its history has been inextricably connected with events on the Tibetan plateau, and culturally it has closer links with Tibet than with other parts of India. Ladakh existed as a separate kingdom for nine centuries, from the middle of the 10th to the 19th when the borders changed: a turbulent period, with the region as a buffer state between Muslim empires in the west and Buddhist Tibet in the east.
An autumn evening near Hanamur village (Treks 5 and 6): the moon is rising over the peak, which is lit by the warm rays of the setting sun
The Mon were probably the earliest inhabitants of Ladakh and Zanskar, possibly migrating by way of Manali before the third century BC. Another group, the Dards, also migrated into Ladakh; their descendants still live along the Indus River in the villages of Domkhar and Skurbuchan. They could have originated from Afghanistan or even have descended from the Aryans, who migrated to India from Eastern Europe. The adventurer AH Francke, who explored Ladakh in the early 20th century, discovered what he thought were royal graves close to modern-day Leh. The Dards worshipped fire, earth, sun, moon, water, animals and the like, similar to the Bon of early Tibet.
Likir Gompa, situated in a tranquil valley off the main road, is famous for its huge statue of the Buddha Maitreya
The earliest Buddhists probably came to Ladakh in the third century BC. Later the Ghandaran civilisation from Taxila in northwest Pakistan influenced Ladakh with its links to the ancient Buddhas of Bamiyan. Buddhism spread all along the Silk Route into China, and superseded the old Tibetan Bon faith on the plateau itself. In the second century AD, the Kushana kings of the Kashmir region ruled over the predominantly Buddhist region that extended into Ladakh; King Kanishka probably constructed a chorten in Zanskar. As early as the fifth century AD, the cult of Maitreya Buddha was found in Ladakh, according to the celebrated Chinese monk explorer Fa Hsien.
During the eighth century the spread of Tantric ideas – emanating from an inter-religious spiritual movement that arose in medieval India in the fifth century – began to influence Buddhist traditions, heralding Buddhism’s eventual decline across India, as Hinduism gained in popularity.
However, Tantric ideas remained in Tibet and Ladakh. Srongtsen Gampo of Tibet had adopted Buddhism as the state religion in the seventh century. Later King Trisong Detsen invited a series of Indian masters, including Padma Sambhava, to teach Buddhism in Tibet. Ironically, it was the assassination of King Langdarma, a strident Bon practitioner and anti-Buddhist ruler, that prompted a revival on the high plateaux of Ladakh, Guge and Tibet. His great-grandson Nyima Gon established firm rule over Ladakh and Western Tibet, and it was his descendants, Yeshe O and Changchub O, who invited Atisa to Toling in the 10th–11th centuries.
The great translator Rinchen Zangpo helped to establish 108 monasteries across Ladakh, Western Tibet and Spiti, visiting the fledgling monastic centre at Spituk around AD1050. However, the first of the great Ladakhi monasteries was built in the early 12th century at Likir. During the 12th–15th centuries the various kings of Ladakh loosely concentrated their power and constructed bridges, palaces and chortens. However, they remained under the influence of Central Tibet.
Stok Palace, on the bank of the Indus River near Leh
After the 15th century many of the Ladakhi monasteries, including Spituk and Likir, transferred to the new Gelug-pa sect of reformer Tsong Khapa. Under King Grags Bum-Ide, a prolific builder, Thikse was founded and images of Buddha Maitreya constructed at Tingmosgang and Tsemo above Leh. Surprisingly, the Sakya-pa gompa at Matho was also consecrated at this time. The lineage of King Grags Bum-Ide ended, allowing the Namgyal dynasty to take power. The first king was Tashi Namgyal, but despite his despotic rule the Drigung philosophy flourished across Ladakh. Tsewang Namgyal (approximately 1530–60) managed to hold power in Ladakh and even extend rule towards Turkic Yarkand. Jamyang Namgyal became ruler of Ladakh from 1560 to 1590, facing opposition from the Muslim Baltis.
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