Virtue). Tradition has it that it was written by Laozi (‘the old one’), but in fact scholars are unsure who the author is. It was originally meant as a handbook for rulers. Ideal Taoism describes a sage whose actions are so unnoticed that his very existence is unsure. The term dao, meaning ‘way’, has been used by all other religious and philosophical traditions in China, including Confucianism and Buddhism.
Taoism is all about the natural order of things. In fact, civilization is a corruption of the natural order, thus reform for the Taoist is to look to the past and the ideals established then. It is about maintaining balance and order according to natural laws. Taoism emphasizes spontaneity and non-interference by letting things take their natural course.
Taoism is sometimes regarded as passive and lacking in strength and vigor. But the Taoist would respond by using the analogy of water. Though water seems weak (not hard), it carves great canyons in the earth by following a natural course.
Taiwan has a thriving Taoist community with Taoist temples dotting the island. Religious Taoism was suppressed by the Communists in mainland China when they came to power, but in recent years there has been a surge in interest in and tolerance for Chinese religions in the country, among them Taoism.
A priest conducting a Taoist rite at a temple. Taoism is one of five religions officially recognized by China.
PRINCIPLES OF TAOISM: HARMONY YIN AND YANG
Yin refers to darkness and yang to light. They represent harmony in the universe, that everything has an opposite force. They are not considered positive or negative but complimentary, independent forces. A fruitful and happy life lies in having a proper balance of all things, such as food, exercise and sleep.
Virtue (de) 德
Taoists seek virtue in their life. It is a passive power that never lays claim to achievements. It is an inner strength and confidence.
Non-action (wu wei) 无为
The Dao De Jing says, ‘The man of superior virtue never acts, and yet there is nothing he leaves undone.’ It does not imply there is no action, but that the actions are so in tune with the natural order of things that the author leaves no trace of himself.
ANCIENT PRACTICES OF ANCESTOR WORSHIP AND FOLK RELIGION
Confucius believed that the bonds we form with our loved ones in this life are still there when they pass on. Up until the early 20th century, a child would engage in a three-year mourning period when a parent died, consisting of wearing coarse clothing, eating a restricted diet of rice porridge twice a day, living in a mourning hut next to the house and other rites. The three-year period was symbolic of the first three years of life, when a child’s parents carried, fed and cared for him.
These mourning rites also resulted in ancestor worship. Family members had a responsibility to care for their deceased loved ones after their death. Ancestors are thought to be deities with power to affect the lives of those still living.
Ancestor worship still persists in rural areas and among Chinese living overseas. The practice includes having a place in the home where offerings are made to ancestors and where photographs of ancestors or tablets with their names carved on them are kept. Offerings of food are placed periodically and incense is burned. Family members pray in front of these ancestral shrines. In some cases, they also burn fake banknotes, paper cars and houses, even paper iPhones and iPads, to ensure their ancestors are comfortable in the afterlife.
Spirit mediums are sometimes called on to communicate with ghosts (the spirit form of a deceased relative and ancestor), who can help them if properly respected and rewarded with food and other offerings.
Rituals and spirit mediums are part of ancestor worship and folk religion.
CHINESE BUDDHISM AND OTHER BELIEFS
Buddhism is an Indian religion that was founded sometime around the 6th to 4th centuries BCE by a young wanderer, Siddhartha Gautama, who later become known as Buddha or the ‘Enlightened one’. It is China’s oldest foreign religion. It spread gradually to China during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) where it merged with the prevailing Taoist thought as well as folk religion. When the first Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese, Taoist terms based on folk religion were often used so that the Chinese could understand and interpret the principles.
By the 5th and 6th centuries, Buddhism had become a powerful intellectual force and was well established among the peasant class. The golden age of Buddhism however, was during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), when it enjoyed state sponsorship (temples and monasteries were supported by the government), and widespread acceptance among the élite as well as peasant classes. Buddhist ideas and practices shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas, including art, politics, literature, philosophy, medicine and material culture.
Buddhism, however, never fully displaced Confucianism and Taoism, but was accepted alongside these native religions. In fact, many in China felt perfectly comfortable adhering to the principles of all three religions at the same time. In order for this to happen, Buddhist philosophy and practices were altered so that they were compatible with existing beliefs in China.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
Samsara This is the belief that life is an endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth.
Reincarnation This is rebirth of the soul into a new body. That new body depends on how someone lives their life. If they live a bad, evil life, they may be reincarnated as a dog or a rat in their next life. If they live a good, virtuous life, they may come back as a more enlightened person.
Karma This refers to acts or deeds. Good conduct and deeds bring happiness and lead to similar good acts and further happiness. Bad conduct brings misery and evil and leads to more bad conduct. Good karma results in a better reincarnation.
Nirvana Once one has overcome these obstacles, they reach a state of enlightenment or nirvana. The endless cycle of rebirth is overcome and one is released from suffering and becomes a Buddha.
Although Buddhism was suppressed in mainland China, most recently during the 1960s and 1970s, it has slowly regained importance to many people. The government is also restoring monasteries and temples, although this is more for the sake of tourism than for any adoration of the religion.
Buddhist monks dressed in saffron robes chant inside the Grand Hall of the Jade Buddha Temple, founded in 1882 in the west of Shanghai.
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
The Four noble Truths are at the core of Buddhist thought.
1. Life is suffering
To live means to suffer because human nature is not perfect. Suffering comes from pain, sickness, injury, old age and death.
2. The origin of suffering is attachment or desire
When we become attached to things and ideas, we suffer. The causes of suffering are desire, passion and seeking wealth, prestige, fame or popularity.
3. Suffering can be eliminated
Suffering can be eliminated by getting rid of desires or attachments. Our suffering will then go away because we will realize that all things and ideas are transient and thus unimportant.
4. There is a path to the end of suffering
The path to the end of suffering is a gradual one of self-improvement.