dif...
4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Conceptual overview of condensation frosting on a chilled substra...Figure 4.2 (a) Theoretical nucleation pressure required to form a new embryo...Figure 4.3 (a) Top-down microscopy of an inter-droplet ice bridge growing fr...Figure 4.4 Depending on which droplet is larger: (a) the frozen droplet, or ...Figure 4.5 (a) When a supercooled liquid droplet first freezes on a thermall...Figure 4.6 (a) Schematic of the vapor flow around a frozen droplet and surro...Figure 4.7 (a) An array of 10 µm wide hydrophilic stripes were chemically pa...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Photo of frost buildup in a freezer taken by Dev Benjamin availab...Figure 5.2 The stages of condensation droplet growth on a surface prior to f...Figure 5.3 Growth of droplets (a) soon after the drops become visible and (b...Figure 5.4 Tracking of the growth of a droplet over time on a silicon surfac...Figure 5.5 Tracking of the growth of a droplet over time on a nanopillar str...Figure 5.6 Number of droplets for the fields of view of both surfaces during...Figure 5.7 The maximum surface temperature required for freezing to occur in...Figure 5.8 Condensation prior to freezing on the 25IL biphilic surface at 26...Figure 5.9 Condensed droplets on a nanopillar surface with a surface tempera...Figure 5.10 Regeneration of droplets on a silicon surface at 40% RH (a) 6 mi...Figure 5.11 Droplets on a silicon surface at 278 K (left) and the histogram ...Figure 5.12 Condensation frosting for nanopillar, plain silicon, and Teflon©...Figure 5.13 Freezing front propagation on a 25IL biphilic surface at 75% rel...Figure 5.14 Droplets on a nanoporous surface before freezing (left) and the ...Figure 5.15 Freezing front propagation on a silicon surface where freezing f...Figure 5.16 Variation of bridging time, t(s), with bridging length, l (μm), ...Figure 5.17 Effect of the experimental ratio of the droplet diameter of froz...Figure 5.18 Photographs (top) of the three stages of condensation frosting o...Figure 5.19 Ice structures that form during the growth stage of condensation...
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Conceptual overview of the different types of defrosting techniqu...Figure 6.2 (a,b) As a frost layer melts it becomes less porous, resulting in...Figure 6.3 (a) Effect of the heat exchanger’s static contact angle on its ma...Figure 6.4 (a-c) Images of a micro-grooved brass sample used for defrosting ...Figure 6.5 (a) Condensation frosting and subsequent defrosting of bare alumi...Figure 6.6 Various modes of dynamic defrosting from nanostructured superhydr...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Profile of a liquid drop on a solid surface.Figure 7.2 Average ice adhesion strengths measured at -10°C on bare steel an...Figure 7.3 Change of ice adhesion strength with the change of surface free e...Figure 7.4 Change of ice adhesion strength with the change of surface free e...Figure 7.5 The relationship between water contact angle and ice adhesion str...
8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Applied force on the ice attached to the icephobic coating.Figure 8.2 The reported values of ice adhesion according to Eq. (8.7) [6].Figure 8.3 Schematic of centrifugal force method for ice adhesion measuremen...Figure 8.4 Experimental setup for ice adhesion measurement using the centrif...Figure 8.5 Rotational shear test method.Figure 8.6 Schematic of shear stress method for ice adhesion measurementFigure 8.7 Schematic of tensile force method for ice adhesion measurement [6...Figure 8.8 Experimental setup used for ice adhesion measurement with the ten...Figure 8.9 Schematic of standard setup for ice adhesion measurement [6].
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Water drop on a solid surface and definition of the contact angle...Figure 9.2 Thermodynamic work of ice adhesion normalized by the surface tens...Figure 9.3 Cassie-Baxter description of the contact angle θCB on a supe...Figure 9.4 Relation between shear strength of the ice-solid interface and wa...Figure 9.5 Snapshots of frost formation on initially dry microstructured sup...Figure 9.6 Dry growth of rime ice (left) and wet growth of glaze ice (right)...Figure 9.7 Adhesion shear strength of ice on aluminium vs. temperature, meas...Figure 9.8 Adhesion shear strength of ice vs. temperature, measured on a num...Figure 9.9 Linear-log representation of ice adhesion strength as a function ...Figure 9.10 Trend of cost, complexity, and capacity to process many surfaces...Figure 9.11 Ice adhesion tests placed in order of increasing realism.Figure 9.12 Forces applied and resulting stresses at the interface between i...Figure 9.13 Generic illustration of a pusher ice adhesion test rig according...Figure 9.14 Schematic of an icing wind tunnel-mounted pusher ice adhesion te...Figure 9.15 Example of the pressure recording during a pusher shear adhesion...Figure 9.16 Early shear ice adhesion test rig according to description in [3...Figure 9.17 Double lap shear test according to ASTM standard and described i...Figure 9.18 Illustration of a lap-shear test rig according to description in...Figure 9.19 Generic illustration of the centrifugal ice adhesion test accord...Figure 9.20 Illustration of the spinning ice adhesion test rig mounted insid...Figure 9.21 Early version of the spinning rotor ice adhesion test rig accord...Figure 9.22 Spinning rotor blade ice adhesion test rig according to descript...Figure 9.23 Euler-Bernoulli cantilever beam model used for the vibrating can...Figure 9.24 Generic illustration of the vibrating cantilever ice adhesion te...Figure 9.25 Geometric parameters relevant for cantilever ice adhesion streng...Figure 9.26 Example of a strain gauge signal recorded during a vibrating can...Figure 9.27 Illustration of the vibrating cantilever ice adhesion measuremen...Figure 9.28 Tensile test with an inlaid force transmission probe according t...Figure 9.29 Generic illustration of the Mode I ice adhesion test according t...Figure 9.30 Illustration of the different possible ice fractures during the ...
10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Example of precipitation ice. Picture also published in [26].Figure 10.2 Example of in-cloud ice. Picture also published in [26].Figure 10.3 Example of bulk water ice. Picture also published in [26].Figure 10.4 Measured ice adhesion strength for each performed test for the t...Figure 10.5 Schematic overview of centrifugal adhesion test (CAT).Figure 10.6 Schematic overview of the horizontal shear test, also called pus...Figure 10.7 Adhesion Reduction Factors (ARFs) from AMIL CAT tests, where ice...Figure 10.8 Illustrations of different realistic ice sample sizes in a horiz...Figure 10.9 Dependence of ice adhesion strength on the probe distance from t...Figure 10.10 Picture of precipitation ice created at AMIL at test temperatur...Figure 10.11 Picture of bulk water ice created at AMIL at test temperature o...Figure 10.12 Picture of bulk water ice created at NTNU at test temperature o...Figure 10.13 AMIL centrifuge adhesion test apparatus. Picture also published...Figure 10.14 NTNU vertical shear test apparatus. Picture also published in [...Figure 10.15 Measured ice adhesion strength values from the interlaboratory ...Figure 10.16 Selected elements and parameters of proposed experimental proto...Figure 10.17 Schematic drawing of the proposed reference test for increased ...
11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Formation of rime ice (a) and glazing (b) on a flat surface that...Figure 11.2 Temperature distribution of droplet freezing on the hierarchical...Figure 11.3 The evolution of frost layer growth on the cold surface. (a) Tw Figure 11.4 Plates exposed to WSET precipitation test for 120 min. Plates tr...Figure 11.5 Time-evolution of the temperature distributions over the airfoil...Figure 11.6 Model set in the icing wind tunnel and schematic illustration of...Figure 11.7 Thermal image of the AC-DBD plasma varying with different operat...Figure 11.8 (a) Schematic of the procedure used to test the ice adhesion str...Figure 11.9 (a) Representative force–displacement curves obtained during the...Figure 11.10 (a) Variation in the ice adhesion strength measured at −15 °C o...Figure 11.11 (a-d) Snapshots of nucleus growth on smooth graphene. The gray ...Figure 11.12 (a) Heating profile of graphene-based glass composite at variou...Figure 11.13 Chemical structure of a typical antifreeze glycoprotein (AFGP);...Figure 11.14 Optical micrographs of PBS (left) and PMAMGlc220 (right) at a c...Figure 11.15 The ABP-Cn-AFPG124Y coating fortified by trehalose inhibited ic...Figure 11.16 Ice nucleation on the NIBF and IBF surfaces. (A) Upper images s...
12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Schematics of droplet wettability on solid surfaces. (a) Smooth ...Figure 12.2 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of four different supe...Figure 12.3 A custom-made closed-loop icing wind tunnel. (a) The main body o...Figure 12.4 (a-d) Original images captured by CCD camera in icing wind tunne...Figure 12.5 Correlation between the mean gray scale value (the coverage of i...Figure 12.6 (a-c) Schematics of the depinning motion of the microscopic cont...Figure 12.7 (a) Schematic of the visualization of the dynamic contact line a...Figure 12.8 Comparison of the analytical model (lines) to the experimental v...Figure 12.9 Experimental setup for the measurement of the shear adhesion for...Figure 12.10 Correlation between the adhesion force of ice measured under st...
13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Examples of ice buildup: (a) obstructing an HVAC system,