France 100, Germany 51, India 60, Italy 106, Japan 136, South Korea
14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60, Norway 40, Peru 28, Poland 70, Russia
254, South Africa 80, Spain 43, Sweden 20, UK 192, US 1,378
(1998–99); winter (July) population - 964 total; Argentina 165,
Australia 75, Brazil 12, Chile 129, China 33, France 33, Germany 9,
India 25, Japan 40, South Korea 14, NZ 10, Poland 20, Russia 102,
South Africa 10, UK 39, US 248 (1998–99); year-round stations - 42
total; Argentina 6, Australia 4, Brazil 1, Chile 4, China 2, Finland
1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Italy 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ
1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 6, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Ukraine 1,
UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1 (1998–99); summer-only stations - 32 total;
Argentina 3, Australia 4, Bulgaria 1, Chile 7, Germany 1, India 1,
Japan 3, NZ 1, Peru 1, Russia 3, Sweden 2, UK 5 (1998–99); in
addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous
occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary
facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research (July 2003
est.)
Government Antarctica
Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Antarctica
Government type: Antarctic Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica. The 24th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was held in Russia in July 2001. At the end of 2001, there were 45 treaty member nations: 27 consultative and 18 non-consultative. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 20 nonclaimant nations. The US and Russia have reserved the right to make claims. The US does not recognize the claims of others. Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative member nations. Decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (within their areas) in accordance with their own national laws. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), Bulgaria (1998) China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), and the US. Non-consultative (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Canada (1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1995), Ukraine (1992), and Venezuela (1999). Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations. Other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for Fauna and Flora (1964) which were later incorporated into the Environmental Protocol; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains unratified; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes: 1) marine pollution, 2) fauna and flora, 3) environmental impact assessments, 4) waste management, and 5) protected area management; it prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research.
Legal system:
Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative
member nations. Decisions from these meetings are carried out by
these member nations (within their areas) in accordance with their
own national laws. US law, including certain criminal offenses by or
against US nationals, such as murder, may apply extra-territorially.
Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the
Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides
civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless
authorized by regulation of statute: the taking of native mammals or
birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry
into specially protected areas; the discharge or disposal of
pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from
Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries
penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The
National Science Foundation and Department of Justice share
enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95–541, the US Antarctic
Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions
from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of
Oceans, Room 5805, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which
reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic
Treaty. For more information, contact Permit Office, Office of Polar
Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230;
telephone: (703) 292–8030, or visit their website at www.nsf.gov.
Economy Antarctica
Economy - overview:
Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for
the limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 2000–01 (1
July-30 June) reported landing 112,934 metric tons. Unregulated
fishing, particularly of tooth fish, is a serious problem. Allegedly
illegal fishing in antarctic waters in 1998 resulted in the seizure
(by France and Australia) of at least eight fishing ships. The
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
determines the recommended catch limits for marine species. A total
of 12,248 tourists visited in the 2000–01 antarctic summer, down
from the 14,762