resonance imaging of a pituitary tumour. (a) T1‐weighted...Figure 4.9 mIBG uptake by a phaeochromocytoma. A whole‐body I123 mIBG scan w...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The human pituitary gland forms at ∼8 weeks of development. The b...Figure 5.2 Highly simplified structure of the hypothalamus and its neural an...Figure 5.3 Visual field assessment. There is a bitemporal loss of the lower ...Figure 5.4 Endocrine feedback circuits. The diagram shows interactions betwe...Figure 5.5 Summary of the regulation and effects of growth hormone (GH). Som...Figure 5.6 A 24‐h profile of serum growth hormone (GH) in a normal 7‐year‐ol...Figure 5.7 Dynamic tests of growth hormone (GH) status. (a) In an oral gluco...Figure 5.8 Two patients with acromegaly. (a) Patient 1. Note the large facia...Figure 5.9 Short stature due to growth hormone (GH) deficiency and the effec...Figure 5.10 Summary of the regulation and effects of prolactin. For the infl...Figure 5.11 The cleavage of pro‐opiomelanocortin (POMC). Adrenocorticotrophi...
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Development of the adrenal gland. The cortex is derived in part f...Figure 6.2 Section through the adrenal cortex. (a) The blood vessels run fro...Figure 6.3 Biosynthesis of adrenocortical steroid hormones. HSD3B activity i...Figure 6.4 The hypothalamic–anterior pituitary–adrenal axis. Higher brain fu...Figure 6.5 Typical diurnal variations in serum cortisol. Levels peak in the ...Figure 6.6 The renin–angiotensin–aldosterone axis. A fall in extracellular f...Figure 6.7 The structure of a nephron and the juxtaglomerular apparatus. (a)...Figure 6.8 The effects of glucocorticoid excess in Cushing disease and the b...Figure 6.9 Cushing syndrome due to an adrenocortical adenoma secreting corti...Figure 6.10 Ambiguous genitalia of a 46,XX infant with congenital adrenal hy...Figure 6.11 The synthesis, storage and release of catecholamines from the ch...Figure 6.12 The synthesis (upper half) and degradation (lower half) of catec...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Sex determination and sex differentiation. (a) Cross‐section of a...Figure 7.2 Differentiation of the internal genitalia. (a) The bipotential sta...Figure 7.3 Development of the external genitalia. DHT, 5α‐dihydrotestosteron...Figure 7.4 Genitalia of a 2‐year old with a 46,XY difference in sex developm...Figure 7.5 A testis in cross‐section. (a) The testis is organized into lobul...Figure 7.6 The structure of the seminiferous tubule. Sertoli cells span the ...Figure 7.7 The biosynthesis of androgens in Leydig cells. Earlier steps can ...Figure 7.8 The hypothalamic–anterior pituitary–testicular axis. Negative fee...Figure 7.9 The stages of pubertal development in males and females as define...Figure 7.10 Follicle growth, maturation and ovulation. The entire process ta...Figure 7.11 The 28‐day menstrual cycle. The start of menstruation is day 1 o...Figure 7.12 The two‐cell biosynthesis of oestrogens. Luteinizing hormone (LH...Figure 7.13 The hypothalamic–anterior pituitary–ovarian axis. Note the varia...Figure 7.14 Changes in the uterine endometrium during the menstrual cycle. (...Figure 7.15 The role of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) in postponing me...Figure 7.16 Steroid production in the feto‐placental unit.
8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 The thyroid gland and its downward migration. The point of origin...Figure 8.2 Histology of the human thyroid gland. (a) Euthyroid follicles are...Figure 8.3 The structures of active and inactive thyroid hormones and their ...Figure 8.4 Thyroid hormone biosynthesis within the follicular cell. Active i...Figure 8.5 A large goitre caused by iodine deficiency in rural Africa. Note ...Figure 8.6 The hypothalamic–anterior pituitary–thyroid axis. The more active...Figure 8.7 Metabolism of thyroid hormones in the circulation. Four times mor...Figure 8.8 Hyperthyroidism caused by Graves disease in a young woman. The do...Figure 8.9 Complications of Graves disease. (a–c) Examples of thyroid eye di...
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Calcium homeostasis. In an adult, daily net absorption from the g...Figure 9.2 The sources and metabolism of vitamin D.Figure 9.3 Synthesis of calcitriol. (a) UV irradiation opens the B ring of 7...Figure 9.4 Effects of changing Ca2+ and PO4 3− on renal hydroxylation ...Figure 9.5 Section through the fetal pharynx illustrating development of the...Figure 9.6 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion in response to serum Ca2+. (a...Figure 9.7 Short fourth metacarpals in pseudohypoparathyroidism.Figure 9.8 Venous sampling for parathyroid hormone (PTH) prior to surgery to...Figure 9.9 Bone remodelling. Mechanical stress influences bone remodelling w...Figure 9.10 Changes in bone mass during life in men and women.Figure 9.11 Rickets. (a) Bowing of the tibiae in a 3‐year‐old. (b) Radiologi...
10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 A pancreatic islet surrounded by exocrine tissue. β‐cells are de...Figure 10.2 Congenital hyperinsulinism (diffuse form). Immunohistochemistry ...Figure 10.3 Necrolytic migratory erythema in a man with the glucagonoma synd...Figure 10.4 Synthesis and degradation of serotonin. *Rate‐limiting step: two...Figure 10.5 Two mechanisms for tumour formation. Mutated or silenced genes a...
11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Worldwide prevalence of diabetes in 2019 with projected figures ...Figure 11.2 International Diabetes Federation estimates of the current and p...Figure 11.3 The Amadori reaction leading to the formation of glycated haemog...Figure 11.4 Representative distribution of fasting plasma glucose within the...Figure 11.5 Relationship between plasma glycated haemoglobin and microvascul...Figure 11.6 Insulin synthesis and secretion from the β cells of pancreatic i...Figure 11.7 The endocrine pancreas. (a) Small clusters of cells, the islets ...Figure 11.8 Characteristic biphasic release of insulin.Figure 11.9 Mechanism of insulin secretion. After uptake, glucose is metabol...Figure 11.10 Insulin signalling cascade. IRS, insulin receptor substrate; PI...Figure 11.11 Regulation of blood glucose concentration. Tissue utilization o...Figure 11.12 Inter‐relationships among alternative routes of glucose metabol...Figure 11.13 Regulation of acetyl co‐enzyme A (CoA) carboxylase by allosteri...Figure 11.14 The synergistic actions of insulin, IGF‐I, and GH on protein sy...
12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Annual number of new cases of type 1 diabetes per 100,000 childr...Figure 12.2 Life‐expectancy and type 1 diabetes in a Scottish cohort. Life‐e...Figure 12.3 The natural history of type 1 diabetes. In stage 1, an autoimmun...Figure 12.4 Pictures of one of the first people with diabetes to receive ins...Figure 12.5 Normal insulin secretion throughout a 24‐h period. There is a lo...Figure 12.6 The timeline of the development of insulin. Banting and Best fir...Figure 12.7 Schematic of the time action of profiles of various insulin prep...Figure 12.8 Schematic representation of insulin profiles with different regi...Figure 12.9 Sites for injection.Figure 12.10 (a) An old insulin needle and syringe. (b) A modern insulin syr...Figure 12.11 (a) Person with type 1 diabetes wearing a Medtronic Minimed Mio...Figure 12.12 Freestyle Optium Neo glucose meter.Figure 12.13 (a) Man wearing Freestyle Libre sensor in the kitchen; (b) Woma...Figure 12.14 Hypoglycaemia unawareness. The thresholds for activation of hyp...Figure 12.15 Biochemistry of diabetic ketoacidosis. Hormone‐sensitive lipase...
13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Prevalence of diabetes in selected countries in the age range of...Figure 13.2 Top ten countries for number of people with diabetes in the age ...Figure 13.3 Diabetes prevalence in white US men and women by age (2015).Figure 13.4 Risk of developing diabetes according to body mass index in 114,...Figure 13.5 The pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. The cardinal features ar...Figure 13.6 (a) Endogenous insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes and under no...Figure 13.7 Natural history of insulin resistance and insulin secretion in t...Figure 13.8 (a) Under normal physiological conditions, the renal tubule re‐a...Figure 13.9 The imperative for screening for type 2 diabetes. It is estimate...Figure 13.10 Main sites of action for antidiabetes agents. Different antidia...Figure 13.11 Ligand‐activated nuclear hormone receptors (review Chapter 3). ...Figure 13.12 Thiazolidinediones: mode of action. After the thiazolidinedione...Figure 13.13 How thiazolidinediones enhance insulin action and normalize blo...Figure 13.14 Actions of GLP‐1 and mode of action of DPP‐4 inhibitors and GLP...Figure 13.15 Gastrointestinal carbohydrate digestion and site of action of a...
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