Inuit challenge U.S. Stance on Northwest Passage,” Nunatsiaq News, May 9, 2019, https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/canadian-inuit-challenge-u-s-stance-on-northwest-passage/.
46 46. Aki Tonami, “The Arctic Policy of China and Japan: Multi-layered Economic and Strategic Motivations,” The Polar Journal 4,1 (2014), pp. 105–26, https://doi.org/10.1080/2154896X.2014.913931; Ian Storey, “The Arctic Novice: Singapore and the High North,” Asia Policy 18 (July 2014), pp. 66–72, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24905278; Hyun Jun Kim, “Success in Heading North? South Korea’s Master Plan for Arctic Policy,” Marine Policy 61 (Nov. 2015), pp. 264–72, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.08.002.
47 47. HM Government, Beyond the Ice: UK Policy towards the Arctic, FCO 2018, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/697251/beyond-the-ice-uk-policy-towards-the-arctic.pdf; see also Dan Sabbagh, “China May Pose Threat to UK as Northern Sea Route Clears, Says Navy Chief,” The Guardian, October 8, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/oct/08/china-strategic-threat-to-uk-as-northern-sea-route-clears-says-royal-navy-chief. The Federal Government, Germany’s Arctic Policy Guidelines Assuming Responsibility, Creating Trust, Shaping the Future, August 2019, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/blob/2240002/eb0b681be9415118ca87bc8e215c0cf4/arktisleitlinien-data.pdf; Davina Basse, “Germany: A New (non-)Arctic Power?,” Arctic Yearbook 2019, https://arcticyearbook.com/images/yearbook/2019/Scholarly-Papers/17_AY2019_Basse.pdf.
48 48. For a list and timeline of updated Arctic strategies, see Hilde-Gun Bye, “Sweden Launches New Arctic Strategy,” High North News, October 2, 2020, https://www.highnorthnews.com/en/sweden-launches-new-arctic-strategy.
49 49. But there are other actors too: the small Nordic states of Finland and Sweden, without access to the Northern seas, who see themselves on the forefront of environmental policies and socially and economically sustainable development, plus in the Finnish case, of digital connectivity in the Arctic space; and Iceland, which fancies itself as a potential shipping hub for the NWP and TSR, while keen to protect its fishing industries. In addition, non-Arctic European and Asian states push into the North, as geopolitics and geoeconomics are shifting. Thus, the subtheme of interaction of the Nordic regime (focused on peace and cooperation, prosperity and sustainability) with the impact of exogenous powers on intra-Arctic affairs and the regional power equilibrium is a central area of investigation.
50 50. Whitney Lackenbauer and Rob Huebert, “Premier Partners: Canada, the United States and Arctic Security,” Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 20, 3 (2014), pp. 320–333, https://doi.org/10.1080/11926422.2014.977313.
51 51. Dion quoted in NATO STRATCOM COE, Arctic Narratives and Political Values: Russia, China and Canada in the High North, Riga, September 2018, p. 11, https://www.stratcomcoe.org/canadas-arctic-strategy.
52 52. The Canadian Government 2017 as quoted in Ibid., p. 9.
53 53. “Canada Needs an Arctic Defence Strategy as Russia, China Eye the North,” Global News, September 25, 2020, https://www.sootoday.com/global-news/commentary-canada-needs-an-arctic-defence-strategy-as-russia-china-eye-the-north-2741803; Vipal Monga, “China’s Move to Buy Arctic Gold Mine Draws Fire in Canada,” Wall Street Journal, July 26, 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-move-to-buy-arctic-gold-mine-draws-fire-in-canada-11595764801; Jessica Shadian, Erica Wallis, “When It Comes to Canada-China Relations, It Is Time to Look North,” Policy Options Politiques, July 7, 2020, https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/july-2020/when-it-comes-to-canada-china-relations-it-is-time-to-look-north/. Cf. P. Whitney Lackenbauer and Adam Lajeunesse, “Chinese Mining Interests and the Arctic,” in D. A. Berry, N. Bowles, and H. Jones, eds., Governing the North American Arctic: Sovereignty, Security, and Institutions (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), pp. 74–99.
54 54. See Government of Canada, Arctic and Northern Policy Framework International chapter, October 22, 2019, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1562867415721/1562867459588. Note that, as regards the Inuit, the document speaks of supporting first nation “self-determination,” and revitalizing and strengthening the cultures of “Arctic and Northern Indigenous peoples, including their languages and knowledge systems.”
55 55. Submission of the Inuit Circumpolar Council Canada to the Special Senate Committee on the Arctic Regarding the Arctic Policy Framework and International Priorities, March 2019, https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/421/ARCT/Briefs/InuitCircumpolarCouncilCanada_e.pdf.
56 56. Cf. Andreas Østhagen, Gregory Levi Sharp and Paal Sigurd Hilde, “At Opposite Poles: Canada’s and Norway’s Approaches to security in the Arctic,” The Polar Journal 8, 1 (2018), pp. 163–81, https://doi.org/10.1080/2154 896X.2018.1468625. See also Ken S. Coates and Carin Holroyd, “Europe’s North: The Arctic Policies of Sweden, Norway, and Finland,” in idem, eds., The Palgrave Handbook of Arctic Policy and Politics (London: Palgrave, 2020), pp. 283–303.
57 57. On Norway’s High North Strategy, see https://www.regjeringen.no/en/topics/high-north/id1154/. Cf. Norwegian MFA, Norway’s Arctic Policy, 10/2014, https://www.loc.gov/law/help/indigenous-heritage/norway.phphttps://www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/departementene/ud/vedlegg/nord/nordkloden_en.pdf.
58 58. James Black, Stephen J. Flanagan, Gene Germanovich, Ruth Harris, David Ochmanek, Marina Favaro, Katerina Galai, and Emily Ryen Gloinson, Enhancing Deterrence and Defence on NATO’s Northern Flank: Allied Perspectives on Strategic Options for Norway (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2020), https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR4381.html. See also Stephen J. Flanagan and James Black, “Norway’s Allies Share Their Views on the Country’s New Defense Plan,” Defense News, April 16, 2020, https://www.defensenews.com/opinion/commentary/2020/04/16/allies-share-views-on-enhancing-defense-of-norway-and-the-high-north/. See also Peter Bakkemo Danilov, “The Security Situation in Northern Norway is Significantly Different from That in the South,” High North News, October 23, 2020, https://www.highnorthnews.com/en/security-situation-northern-norway-significantly-different-south.
59 59. Kåre Storvik, “The Future is in the North,” Offshore Engineer, January 13, 2020, https://www.oedigital.com/news/474542-the-future-is-in-the-north.
60 60. Altogether, some 100,000 Sámi live in Northern Europe—the majority of which are in North Norway. Library of Congress, Legal Report by Elin Hofverberg, “Protection of Indigenous Heritage: Norway,” March 2019, https://www.loc.gov/law/help/indigenous-heritage/norway.phphttps://www.loc.gov/law/help/indigenous-heritage/norway.php.
61 61. Amy Martin, “The Arctic’s Sámi People Push For a Sustainable Norway,” The World, November 5, 2018, https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-11-05/arctics-s-mi-people-look-sustainable-norway.
62 62. Christian Volk, “The Problem of Sovereignty in Globalized Times,” Law, Culture and the Humanities (Feb. 2019), https://doi.org/10.1177/1743872119828010; Hent Kalmo and Quentin Skinner, eds., Sovereignty in Fragments - The Past, Present and Future of a Contested Concept (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010); Hannes Gerhardt, Philip E. Steinberg, Jeremy Tasch, Sandra J. Fabiano and Rob Shields, “Contested Sovereignty in a Changing Arctic,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 100, 4 [Climate Change] (Oct. 2010), pp. 992–1002. Cf. Corine Wood-Donnelly, Contested Sovereignty in a Changing Arctic 1494–2013, PhD Dissertation, Brunel University, 2014.
63 63. Marc Jacobsen, Greenland’s Arctic Advantage: Articulations, Acts and appearances of Sovereignty Games,” Cooperation and Conflict 55, 2 (2020), pp. 170–192, https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836719882476.
64 64. China has expressed interest in Greenland’s deposits of uranian, thorium, earth oxide, zinc, lead, nickel, copper, and molybdenum as well as valuable deposits of ruby, sapphires, gold, silver and platinum. Bjorn Schionning, “As the Ice Melts, Greenland Considers Its Future,” BBC, January 9, 2020, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-51014148; “All Eyes on the Arctic: US, China and Russia Race to Control Far North,” Euronews/AP, July 23, 2020, https://www.euronews.com/2020/07/23/all-eyes-on-the-arctic-us-china-and-russia-race-to-control-far-north.
65 65. See Laurence Peter, “Danes See Greenland Security Risk amid Arctic Tensions,” BBC, November 29, 2019, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-50598898. Cf. Kingdom of Denmark Strategy for the Arctic 2011–2020 https://naalakkersuisut.gl/en/Naalakkersuisut/Departments/Udenrigsanliggende/Kongerigets-Arktiske-Strategi.
66 66.