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Handbook of Clinical Gender Medicine


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evaluated 181 male and female smokers and nonsmokers with or without prenatal exposure to maternal smoking. Individuals exposed prenatally to nicotine showed a reduction of cortical cholinergic markers on which attentional function is highly dependent. Reductions in auditory and visual attention were greatest among females who were exposed prenatally to nicotine and who were smokers themselves. Intrauterine exposure to nicotine in males was associated with marked deficits in auditory attention.

      Effects of Intrauterine Testosterone

      The Sexual Dimorphous Brain – Organizational and Activational Effects of Sex Hormones

      Hormones seem to exert a bitemporal effect on the brain. The organizational effect induces specific cell processes, occurs during intrauterine life, and permanently determines the development and function of sex organs, the brain, and other bodily systems. The activational effects may be transient or permanent, may occur throughout life, or may not occur at all. While this two-process theory has been challenged as being overall simplicist, it is helpful for the purpose of understanding the way sex hormones affect our brain. Juvenile play behavior has been used traditionally as an indicator of the degree of masculinization or feminization of offspring. Organizational and activational effects of testosterone also seem to be involved in inflammatory pain and response to morphine analgesia. This may explain the reported higher pain thresholds in men compared to women.

      Intrauterine