in Angus and Angus times Charolais bulls (Year 1, n = 37; Year 2, n = 39; Year 3, n = 43; Year 4, n = 33)."/>
Figure 6.8 Mean (± SEM) scrotal circumference (SC) and testicular ultrasonogram pixel intensity (TPI) according to age at puberty in Angus and Angus × Charolais bulls (Year 1, n = 37; Year 2, n = 39; Year 3, n = 43; Year 4, n = 33). TPI, determined on a scale of 1 (black) to 255 (white), started to increase 16–12 weeks before puberty and reached maximum values four weeks before or at puberty. These results indicate that a certain developmental stage of the testicular parenchyma must be reached before puberty and that the composition of the parenchyma remains consistent after puberty. Overall, TPI was greater (P < 0.0001) in Angus × Charolais than in Angus bulls. TPI means with superscript asterisks indicate overall change (P < 0.05) with age.
Source: From [45], © 2012, Elsevier.
Figure 6.9 Top: Mean sperm viability and morphology according to age in Angus and Angus × Charolais bulls (n = 39). Bottom: Proportion of pubertal (ejaculate containing ≥50 × 106 sperm with ≥10% motile sperm) and mature (ejaculate containing ≥30% motile and ≥70% morphologically normal sperm) bulls according to age. The interval between puberty and maturity was approximately 50 days.
Source: From [61], © 2012, Elsevier.
Figure 6.10 Prevalence of proximal droplets in ejaculates from bulls of various breeds according to age (n = 7284).
Source: From [64], © 2020, Elsevier.
Figure 6.11 Mean (± SEM) scrotal circumference (SC), testicular vascular cone diameter (TVCD), and fat thickness (TVCF) in Angus and Angus × Charolais bulls in two years (top: n = 37; bottom: n = 33). Testicular vascular cone diameter increased with age following testicular development, whereas vascular cone fat thickness increased similar to a pattern observed for body backfat. Means with superscript asterisks indicate last significant (P < 0.05) change with age.
Source: From [65], © 2012, Elsevier.
Attempts to establish guidelines for selection of bulls at weaning based on the likelihood of attainment of certain minimum yearling SC have produced mixed results. In one study, it was recommended that the minimum SC in Angus and Simmental bulls 198–291 days old should be 23 or 25 cm to ensure an SC of 30 or 32 cm at 365 days of age, respectively; the same recommendations for Hereford bulls were 26 and 28 cm [7]. In another study, differences between bulls that attained a minimum yearling SC of 34 cm and bulls that did not were observed for adjusted SC at 200 days of age (23.3 vs 20.5 cm, respectively). Based on these results, it was suggested that SC at weaning could be used to select bulls for breeding and 23 cm was proposed as the minimum SC standard at 200 days [37]. However, this study included bulls from several breeds with known differences in patterns of testicular growth and mature size, while using a singular and very strict yearling SC minimum. SC at 240 days of age could be used as a tool to select bulls with a high probability of meeting the minimum requirements for SC at 365 days of age (i.e. Simmental 32 cm; Angus, Charolais, and Red Poll 31 cm; Hereford 30 cm; Limousin 29 cm); sensitivity and specificity analysis for determining cutoff values indicated that the probability of Charolais bulls with SC ≥24 cm, Simmental and Limousin bulls with SC ≥22 cm, and Angus, Hereford, and Red Poll bulls with SC ≥21 cm attaining minimum requirements was greater than 80%. However, SC at weaning was not useful as a culling tool, since a large portion of bulls, irrespective of breed, met the minimum requirements at 365 days of age even when SC was below 21 cm at 240 days of age [38].
Although the heritability of semen traits is generally low, SC is positively associated with sperm production and semen quality, and genetic correlations between SC and semen traits are generally favorable (Table 6.1). This suggests that direct selection for SC would be more effective in bringing about sperm production and semen quality improvement than direct selection pressure on semen traits themselves. In addition, several studies have reported an association between sire SC and daughter puberty. In Brahman and Hereford cattle, genetic correlations between SC and heifer ages at first detected ovulatory estrus, first breeding, and first calving were −0.32, −0.39, and −0.38, respectively [17, 39]. In another study with beef cattle, favorable relationships between greater sire SC and ages at puberty and at first calving were demonstrated by negative correlation coefficients between the two traits [40]. In a population of composite beef cattle, the correlation coefficient among parental breed group means for SC and percentage of pubertal females at 452 days of age was 0.95, whereas the correlation with female age at puberty was −0.91 [5]. A significantly greater proportion of females had reached puberty at 11 and 13 months of age when sired by Limousin bulls with high SC EPD compared with females sired by bulls with low or average EPD [33].
Although sire SC is associated with daughter puberty, evaluation of the genetic correlation between SC and pregnancy rates has produced low estimates that in some cases are not different from zero [29, 31, 41]. A possible explanation for these observations is a non‐linear relationship between the traits. One study in Hereford cattle indicated that the effect of SC breeding values on heifer pregnancy exhibits a threshold relationship. As SC increases in value, there is a diminishing return for improved heifer pregnancy, suggesting that selection for a high SC breeding value may not be an advantage for increased heifer pregnancy over selection for a moderate SC breeding value [23]. Although it would seem that the favorable genetic relationship between SC and age at puberty does not completely translate to heifer pregnancy, it is important to note that the experimental design might have confounded some of the referred results, since it is obvious that when the entire group of heifers reach puberty before exposure to breeding, those heifers reaching puberty at younger ages would have no advantage in conception over those reaching puberty at older ages. Moreover, end‐of‐season pregnancy rates were used in these studies as opposed to per‐cycle pregnancy rates and the value of having heifers conceiving early rather than late in the season might have been lost.
Puberty
After spermatogenesis is established, there is a gradual increase in the number of testicular germ cells supported by each Sertoli cell and an increase in the efficiency of the spermatogenesis, i.e. an increase in the number of more advanced germ cells resulting from the division of precursor cells. The yields of different germ cell divisions, low during the onset of spermatogenesis, increases progressively to the adult level [42–44]. Testicular histological changes and increasing efficiency of spermatogenesis are accompanied by increasing testicular echogenicity. Testicular ultrasonogram pixel intensity starts to increase approximately 12–16 weeks before puberty and reaches maximum values right around