beta-blockers have variable hydrophobicity, while lipid regulators and antibiotics are hydrophobic compounds (Monteiro and Boxall, 2010). Hormones and steroids also tend to be hydrophobic (Monteiro and Boxall, 2010, 2016).
Figure 2.1 Summary depiction of the nature, sources, behaviour, human exposure and health risks, and removal of pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems.
Figure 2.1 summarizes the hotspot sources and reservoirs of pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems. Major sources include solid wastes and wastewaters from (1) medical facilities such as hospitals, (2) veterinary facilities, (3) livestock husbandry and abattoirs, and (4) pharmaceutical industries (Bound and Voulvoulis, 2005; Paiga et al., 2016; Gwenzi and Chaukura, 2018; Ragowska et al., 2019). Municipal wastewater treatment systems, which receive wastewater and effluent streams from various sources, act as reservoirs of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites (Nikolaou et al., 2017). This is because wastewater treatment plants based on conventional treatment processes only achieve limited or partial removal of pharmaceuticals (Nikolaou et al., 2007). For example, Kay et al. (2017) observed that raw sewage from sewer overflow is a significant source of pharmaceuticals in surface aquatic systems. Other potential hotspot sources which are currently under-studied include waste/wastewaters from (1) solid waste repositories such as non-sanitary landfills or waste dumps, (2) on-site sanitation systems such as septic tanks and pit latrines, (3) mortuaries and funeral parlors, and (4) gravesites and cemeteries (Gwenzi and Chaukura, 2018). Due to poor solid waste and wastewater management practices in developing countries, these under-studied sources could be significant sources of pharmaceuticals released into aquatic systems.
2.2.2 Dissemination and Occurrence in Aquatic Systems
Pharmaceuticals are widely disseminated from their sources and reservoirs via hydrological processes (Figure 2.1). These hydrological processes include erosion, runoff, leaching, groundwater recharge, and direct discharge and spillages of wastewaters and effluent (Gwenzi and Chaukura, 2018). These processes account for the wide spared occurrence in various environmental compartments including surface aquatic systems, groundwater, soils, crops, aquatic biota, sediments, and water and drinking water systems (Houtman, 2010; Paltiel et al., 2016; Fabbri et al., 2016). The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environment including aquatic systems has received great research attention (Verlicchi et al., 2012; Gaw et al., 2014; Carter et al., 2019). However, only a small proportion of those commercially available, commonly dispensed and used have been monitored in the aquatic environment. Pharmaceuticals are considered as emerging contaminants because (1) they are not included among parameters monitored in conventional monitoring programmes such as drinking water quality (Gwenzi and Chaukura, 2018) and (2) less is known about their effects on organisms (Kaczala and Blum, 2016; Letsinger and Kay, 2019). Interest in pharmaceuticals in the environment is largely driven by increasing evidence of their health risks, and recent advances in analytical equipment (Gwenzi and Chaukura, 2018).
Research on pharmaceuticals as environmental contaminants dates back to about 1976 to 1985 (Daughton, 2016). Today, the field has developed into a multidisciplinary area attracting a lot of research interest. To date, several pharmaceuticals have been detected in the environment, including estrogens such as estrone and ethinylestradiol, as well as the metabolites of the lipid-lowering drug clofibric acid (Aus der Beek et al., 2016). Most of the pharmaceuticals are found as unchanged form in wastewater as well as in rivers (Kay et al., 2017). However, there are drugs such as aspirin which have been found in the metabolite form of salicylic acid (Murdoch, 2015). Fluoxetine and propranolol were also observed to occur both in their original and metabolite forms (Lόpez-Serna et al., 2013). Fluoxetine metabolite is nor-fluoxetine while propranolol one is 4OHpropranolol. Carbamazepine also has Carbamazepine-glucuronide as one of its metabolite (Zhou et al., 2011).
The pharmaceuticals detected in aquatic systems tend to vary considerably among countries. The most common ones detected in parts of Australia and Europe are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, analgesics, psychiatric drugs, and antibiotics (Paiga et al., 2016 and Murdoch, 2015). Ibuprofen and diclofenac are the most common nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug, paracetamol and aspirin for the analgesic, carbamazepine, and fluoxetine for psychiatric and for antibiotic a variety is detected in surface aquatic systems (Paiga et al., 2016; Murdoch, 2015; Lόpez-Serna et al., 2013; Vazquez-Roig et al., 2011). Lipid regulator and diuretic have also been reported in Australia and in Spain waste water and river water (Osorio et al., 2016; Murdoch, 2015). In the USA, a total of about 93 pharmaceuticals have been reported to occur in aquatic systems, and the most common ones are antibiotics (27) and antidepressants (15) (Deo, 2014). Pharmaceuticals have been observed in lakes showing they are able to travel long distances in rivers without being modified (Daneshvar et al., 2010).
Pharmaceuticals have also been detected in groundwater but in relatively lower concentrations than in surface aquatic systems (Maskaoni and Zhou, 2010). The low concentration has been assumed to be due to transport and transformation processes which cause major modification and removal of pharmaceuticals. Pharmaceuticals have also been detected in marine systems. For example, 36 pharmaceuticals were detected in the Mediterranean Sea in concentrations quite similar to those found in the Ter River (Spain) which flows into the Mediterranean with maximum concentrations of 29 ng/L (Gros et al., 2012). The same authors also detected 15 pharmaceuticals in tap water, but concentrations were relatively low, with highest concentration being 13 ng/L. Illicit or recreational drugs including amphetamines and other psychostimulant drugs have also been detected in aquatic systems in several countries (Apul et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).
Pharmaceuticals have also been detected in aquatic systems in Africa, and number of reviews on the subject also exist (Gwenzi et al., 2018; K’oreje et al., 2019; Offiong et al., 2019). A recent review by Madikizela et al. (2020) showed that pharmaceuticals including antibiotics, non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs, antiretroviral drugs, steroid hormones were reported in aquatic systems in six countries out of a total of 54 African countries for the period 2017 to 2019. No data were available for the remainder 48 countries, largely due to lack of analytical equipment, expertise, and funding to support research on the subject. Moreover, it is also possible that the work of Madikizela et al. (2020) may have excluded literature from non-English speaking countries in West and North Africa. Antibiotics, antipyretics, beta-blocker, lipid regulator and psycho-stimulants were detected in surface water and dams along the Umgeni River system in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa (Agunbiade and Moodley, 2014). In Kenya the pharmaceutical groups observed were antibiotics, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiepileptic, antimalarial, and antiretroviral drugs (K’oreje et al., 2012).
A review by Offiong et al. (2019) showed that Nevirapine, Bromacil, ampicillin, and tetracycline were prevalent in African aquatic systems. The maximum concentrations were observed for Acetaminophenol and chloramphenicol. The same review also showed that pharmaceuticals such as Asprin, dichlofenac, acetaminophen, Ibuprofen, and Ketoprofen were also prevalent. These pharmaceuticals were often detected either in surface water, and influent or effluent wastewaters from wastewater treatment plants. One study from North Africa (i.e., Egypt) showed that amoxicillin and trimethoprim had high concentrations in river water, reaching 28 and 230 ng/L (Abdallah et al., 2019). Another study showed that antibiotics detected in the greatest concentrations included Nalidixic acid, while other antibiotics included streptomycin, tetracycline, and ampicillin (Archer et al., 2017).
K’oreje et al. (2020) showed that ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim, while analgesics/anti-inflammatories were aspirin, ibuprofen, and paracetamol were common in African aquatic systems. In the same study, the common anti-retrovirals were lamivudine, nevirapine and zidovudine. Interestingly, specific classes of pharmaceutically active compounds, e.g., anti-retrovirals and anti-malarials, which are rarely reported in developed countries were widely detected in African aquatic systems at high concentrations (>100 μg/L) (K’oreje