in 1798 from the Siberian red ore (crocoites) [1]. South Africa and Zimbabwe account for 85% and 10% of total earth’s chrome ore reserve (7,500 million tons). In addition, 2.5% the world’s chromium resources are found in India (i.e., about 186 million tons). India accounts for around 97% of world chromium reserve and it is mostly stuffed in Sukinda ultramafic belt of Odisha [2]. Chromium is found in variable valence forms ranging from −2 to +6, and the most stable forms are Cr(VI) and Cr(III) which are amalgamated with oxygen. Chromium oxide (CrO3) and chromium hydroxide [Cr(OH)3] are two different forms of Cr(III) while Cr(VI) is available in the form of dichromate (Cr2O72−), chromate (CrO42−) or hydro-chromate (HCrO4−). Along with various industrial applications, it is also attributed with some strategic importance in the field of defence, aero-space, and aviation [2]. Mertz (1969) [3] reported that chromium (III) is responsible for the glucose tolerance factor. Cr(III) is necessary for the metabolism of carbohydrate in human and animal nutrition [3, 4]. Intake of a large amount of Cr(III) beyond permissible limit may also responsible for many diseases like lung’s cancer [5, 6]. Cr(III) is quite different from Cr(VI) on the basis of their mobility, bioavailability, and toxicity. It has been observed that the hexavalent form of chromium is more soluble and toxic than the trivalent form. Daily consumption/intake of Cr(VI) beyond the permissible limit present in the contaminated water and food products results in the entry of chromate into the human body [7, 8]. Serious environmental complicacies have been observed due to the rampant usage of toxic forms of chromium which cause vitiation in soil and water. Open cast mining of chromium cause the assemblage of chromite ores and waste rock materials which are further discarded in to the open ground without considering its effect on the environment [9]. This toxic metal percolates to the groundwater systems through rain and enters into the surface water bodies through soil run off. Hence, it is the dire need of the time to ameliorate the toxicity of the metal using some eco-friendly and economic sources. In this regard, the present scenario is highly demanding a suitable biological alternative which can also overcome the dangerous side effects of expensive chemical treatments.
Chromium toxicity can be lessened using biosorbents prepared from various microbes like bacteria, fungi, yeasts, moulds, and algae [10]. However, involvement of microalgae for the reduction of toxicity is highly recommendable due to the availability of some exclusive properties in them. Presence of different binding groups, polysaccharides, proteins, and vacuoles collectively provide a higher binding affinity with the metal and, hence, facilitate the process of bioremediation [11]. Moreover, these microbes also possess numerous advantages like high efficiency in eliminating heavy metals even from very low concentration, cheaper cost, high adsorbing capacity, larger surface area, greater mucilage area, and high binding affinity with simple nutrient requirement. Besides these, they are capable of growing in both aquatic and terrestrial area. In diverse ecosystems, algae play significant roles for which they are regarded as cosmopolitan microorganisms. They can synthesize low molecular weight thiol-peptides and reduced glutathione and phytochelatin when grown in a heavy metal polluted environment [12].
Figure 2.1 The chromium cycle.
2.1.1 Chromium Cycle
The chromium cycle mostly comprises oxidation and reduction of Cr(III) and Cr(VI), respectively (Figure 2.1). Although both the forms of chromium are found to have opposite characteristics (e.g., toxicity, mobility, and reactivity) but eventually both are highly dangerous when the concentration becomes high. Moreover, this cycle depicts the simultaneous reduction of Cr(VI) through some carbon compounds and the oxidation of Cr(III) in the presence of manganese oxide available in soil and sediments represented in the below equations [13].
(2.1)
(2.2)
2.2 Effects of Hexavalent Chromium Toxicity
2.2.1 Toxicity to Microorganisms
Chronic exposure to hexavalent chromium has many deleterious effects on the structure and function of the microbial cells, and in some cases, it also causes dormancy. It leads to species loss and disturbs the diversity. Growth of Scenedesmus acutus was inhibited when it treated with more than 15 ppm of hexavalent chromium [14]. Spirogyra sp. and Mougeotia sp. were found forming Cr(V) while exposed to Cr(VI) [15]. The lag growth phase of Euglena gracilis was lengthened when treated with Cr(VI) and motility was also lost due to the modifications in the cytoskeleton induced by Cr(VI) [16]. It was reported that the photosynthesis was inhibited due to the presence of Cr in the cells of Scenedesmus sp. and Chlorella sp. [17, 18]. The sulfate transport system mediated transport of chromate ions has diverse toxic effects in the cytoplasm of Salmonella typhimurium, Alkaligenes eutrophus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas fluorescens. According to Viamajala et al., (2002) [19], the minimum concentration of Cr (VI) (0.015 mM) has slowed down the growth of Shewanella oneidensis. The reduction of growth was observed in mycelium of fungi due to the toxic effect of hexavalent chromium. Interference of chromium causes gene mutation and conversion which further lead to growth inhibition in fungal cell [16].
2.2.2 Toxicity to Plant Body
Hexavalent chromium diffuses across the cell membrane due to the structural resemblance of chromate ions to phosphate or sulphate. It can easily enter inside the cell and where the reduction takes place producing Cr(V) and then Cr(III) reactive oxygen species and free radicals [20]. Cr(III) is impermeable, so unable to cross the cellular membrane and prefers to bind the protein molecules available on the membrane surface with greater affinity causing DNA damage, inhibition of DNA replication, and RNA transcription [21]. Plant growth, development, and plant physiology (mineral nutrition, water relations, and photosynthesis) are greatly affected by hexavalent chromium [22]. The amount of chlorophyll (Chl) content, nitrate reductase activity, and δ-aminolevulinic acid contents were also reduced in plants growing in chromium contaminated soil [23]. Hexavalent chromium induces the inhibition of photosynthesis rate in terms of CO2 fixation, electron transport processes, enzyme activities, and photophosphorylation in plants [24, 25]. Bishnoi et al., (1993) [26] has observed that Cr(VI) was influencing the PS I and PS II by isolating the chloroplasts from peas. The direct effect of Cr exposure has also been found on enzymes or other metabolites that may cause increased oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation [27–29]. Consequently, herein, we can conclude three key roles of Cr on plants as follows:
1 (i) Production of a new metabolites to change the metabolic pool which would providetolerance of Cr stress (e.g., phytochelatins and histidine) [30].
2 (ii) Variation of the production in several pigments (like chlorophyll and anthocyanin) for the sustenance of plants [31].
3 (iii) Cr stress induces the production of metabolites like glutathione and ascorbic acid which may cause damage to the plants [32, 33].
2.2.3 Toxicity to Animals
People those are directly exposed to chromium show nasal irritation, perforation of the nasal septum, nasal ulcers, “chrome holes” [34], and hypersensitivity reactions in the skin. But some other cases reported that the normal people who are not practically exposed to chromium but ingested chromium through food and water show deposition of chromium in different organelles like kidney, adrenals, lungs, liver, spleen, plasma, bone marrow, and red blood cells in due to low pH of the stomach. Ingestion of Cr(VI) poses a significant carcinogenic risk because of the solubility of particulate chromate at low pH which is weakly carcinogenic to the lungs [34]. Enduring exposure