7.11 View factors shown for two surface elements.Figure 7.12 View factor of two surfaces of infinite length.Figure 7.13 Schematic of a PV module’s view factor [11].Figure 7.14 The monthly yield in energy computed using different methods.Figure 7.15 Yearly rear-surface irradiance gain ratio calculated with different ...Figure 7.16 Effect of albedo on performance of PV.Figure 7.17 Effect of angle of tilt on PV performance [11].Figure 7.18 The effect of elevation on PV performance [11].Figure 7.19 The influence of weather parameters on the performance of PV modules...
8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Pretreatment and its effect on lignocellulosic biomass.Figure 8.2 Types of pretreatment.Figure 8.3 Picture representing the de-polymerization of lignin into lignin frag...
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Photosynthesis pathway.Figure 9.2 Types of biomass resources.Figure 9.3 Biomass to bioenergy conversion technologies.Figure 9.4 Energy recovery by combustion of different material of MSW over 1960-...
10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Installed capacity of solar PV in Africa (2000-2015). Source: IRENA,...Figure 10.2 Share of total cost of a large-scale solar photovoltaic project in A...Figure 10.3 Distribution of renewable energy projects in South Africa. Source: M...Figure 10.4 REIPPP growth in energy produced during 2014. Source: DoE, 2015 [57]...Figure 10.5 Electricity generation from hydropower between 2011 - 2016. Source: ...Figure 10.6 Electric power production (2004/05 - 2015/16) Source: IRENA, 2018 [5...Figure 10.7 Renewable energy generation capacity in Nigeria Source: African Ener...
11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Schematic diagram of pyrolysis of biomass waste.Figure 11.2 Synthesis and characterisation ECF.Figure 11.3 Resources of biomass.Figure 11.4 Diagrammatic representation of BC derived CF.Figure 11.5 Schematic illustration for synthesis of PB and NPB.Figure 11.6 Preparation of ECF.Figure 11.7 FT-IR of (a) PB (b) NPB (c) PC (d) ECFu and (e) ECF.Figure 11.8 XRD images of (a) PB (b) NPB (c) PC and (d) ECF.Figure 11.9 TEM (i) image of NPB (900 nm) at 8KX and SEM (ii-iv) images of ECF a...Figure 11.10 (a) TG-DTA-DTG thermogram of PB, (b) TG-DTA-DTG thermogram of NPB, ...Figure 11.11 Electrical characteristics of NPB, PC, OP and ECF.
12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Minimum and maximum cost comparison of renewable energy sources (INR...Figure 12.2 (a) Static VAR compensator (TCR & TSC) and (b) Thyristor-controlled ...Figure 12.3 (a) STATCOM, (b) SSSC, (c) DVR and (d) UPFC.Figure 12.4 (a) Uncompensated line, (b) shunt compensation and (c) series compen...Figure 12.5 (a) CSC-HVDC and (b) VSC-HVDC.Figure 12.6 (a) Back-to-back, (b) monopolar and (c) bipolar.Figure 12.7 Cross-sectional views of SiC devices.Figure 12.8 DC-DC buck-boost converter.Figure 12.9 Bidirectional ac-link ac-ac buck-boost converter.Figure 12.10 Soft switching bidirectional ac-link ac-ac buck-boost converter.Figure 12.11 Soft switching bidirectional ac-link ac-ac buck-boost converter wit...Figure 12.12 Soft switching multi-port bidirectional ac-link ac-ac buck-boost co...Figure 12.13 Wind energy electrical energy conversion systems.Figure 12.14 Modern wind power converters.Figure 12.15 Dominant power converter topologies in wind power applications.Figure 12.16 Block diagram of the back-to-back topology.Figure 12.17 Grid-tied PV energy conversion system.Figure 12.18 Multilevel inverter classifications.Figure 12.19 Three-phase NPC multi-string topology for multi-megawatt PV applica...Figure 12.20 Three-phase CHB multi-string topology for multi-megawatt PV applica...Figure 12.21 AC-DC-AC Indirect converter.Figure 12.22 Fully controlled three-phase to three-phase AC-DC-AC converter (a) ...Figure 12.23 Simplified AC-DC-AC Converter (a) Two-level three phases/single pha...Figure 12.24 (a) Diode clamped multilevel inverter, (b) flying capacitor multile...Figure 12.25 Three-phase to five-phase matrix converter.Figure 12.26 Single-phase boost PFC circuit.Figure 12.27 (a) Shunt APF, (b) Series APF and (c) UPFC.Figure 12.28 Bearing currents.Figure 12.29 Common mode current analysis.Figure 12.30 (a) Voltage-fed ZSI and (b) voltage-fed qZSI.Figure 12.31 qZSI with battery pack for PV system.
13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Schematic concept of hydrogen fuel cell.Figure 13.2 Fuel cell process schematic representation.Figure 13.3 Fuel cell reactions.Figure 13.4 Current density against voltage i-v curve with various regions of vo...Figure 13.5 Schematic power density with i-v curve.Figure 13.6 Block diagram of energy storage system.Figure 13.7 PGM, platinum group metal price for 100 kW (FCEV year wise) [6]. Sou...Figure 13.8 Hydrogen fuel cell car [20]. Source courtesy from: https://afdc.ener...Figure 13.9 Hydrogen fuel modeled by the intergovernmental panel on climate chan...Figure 13.10 Automotive fuel cell stack cost, year wise and future targets [6]. ...Figure 13.11 Hydrogen economy with fuel cell.
14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Basic principle of a fuel cell.Figure 14.2 Schematic diagram of basic five fuel cells.Figure 14.3 A simple block diagram of a hybrid distributed energy generation uni...
15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Block diagram of a smart home.Figure 15.2 Schematic diagram of an auto faucet system.Figure 15.3 Schematic of the developed prototype: (a) view of pelton wheel, (b) ...Figure 15.4 Jet diameter as a function of pressure head.Figure 15.5 Runner diameter as a function of pressure head.Figure 15.6 Photographic images of the developed prototype-1: (a) wooden pattern...Figure 15.7 Photographic images of developed prototype-2: (a) assembled runner o...Figure 15.8 Photographic images of developed prototype-3: (a) runner of prototyp...Figure 15.9 Block diagram of the experimental setup.Figure 15.10 Experimental setup used for characterization of prototypes.Figure 15.11 Load voltage with respect to load resistance.Figure 15.12 Load current with respect to load resistance.Figure 15.13 Load power with respect to load resistance.Figure 15.14 Efficiency as function of load resistance.Figure 15.15 Charging voltage as a function of time.Figure 15.16 Auto faucet fitted with prototype-3: (a) auto faucet battery, circu...Figure 15.17 Voltage and current levels during single hand-washing activity.Figure 15.18 Power levels during single hand-washing activity.Figure 15.19 Battery’s voltage as a function of washing activities.Figure 15.20 Current as a function of washing activities.Figure 15.21 Power consumption as a function of washing activities.
16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Energy resources.Figure 16.2 Light spectrum.Figure 16.3 PV output with different tracking options.Figure 16.4 Latitude.Figure 16.5 Sun position in sky.Figure 16.6 Sun path.Figure 16.7 Cells to string through modules.Figure 16.8 Solar light paths.Figure 16.9 Cell temperature effects.Figure 16.10 Air mass.Figure 16.11 I-V and P-V curves.Figure 16.12 Fill factor.Figure 16.13 Effect of resistance on fill factor.Figure 16.14 Off-grid SPP.Figure 16.15 Grid-connected SPP.Figure 16.16 Hybrid power systems.Figure 16.17 Equivalent circuit of PV module.Figure 16.18 I-V characteristics with varying irradiance at constant temperature...Figure 16.19 P-V characteristics with varying irradiance at constant temperature...Figure 16.20 I-V characteristics with varying temp. at constant irradiance.Figure 16.21 P-V characteristics with varying temperature at constant irradiance...Figure 16.22 PV Syst simulations of power.Figure 16.23 Field real-time test result at 69.5°C.Figure 16.24 Field real-time test result at 35.9°C.Figure 16.25 Power schematic diagram.Figure 16.26 Price break-up.Figure 16.27 Shadow analysis from S-E corner at 8:35 AM.Figure 16.28 Shadow analysis from S-E corner at 4:30 PM.Figure 16.29 Shadow analysis of Inverter room.Figure 16.30 PVsyst estimates of power generation.Figure 16.31 Power schematic diagram of case study.Figure 16.32 Year wise power outputs of financial years 2017-2018.Figure 16.33 Power outputs of financial years 2017-2020.Figure 16.34 Monthly PR and CUF details.Figure 16.35 Load flow simulation without SPP integration.Figure 16.36 Load flow simulation with SPP integration.Figure 16.37 Fault currents before SPP integration.Figure 16.38 Fault currents after SPP integration.
17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 AC microgrid [5].Figure 17.2 DC microgrid [6].Figure 17.3 Operating modes of microgrid [7].Figure 17.4 PSS for microgrid stability [47].Figure 17.5 (a) Voltage-reactive power (b) frequency-active power droop control ...Figure 17.6 Hierarchical control of microgrids.Figure 17.7 Centralized control strategy.Figure 17.8 Schematic representation of decentralised control [34, 37].Figure 17.9 Control architecture for microgrids.Figure 17.10 Autonomous control of microgrids [28].Figure 17.11 PQ-inverter control [12, 14].Figure 17.12 VSI interfaced with microgrid [71].Figure 17.13 Droop characteristics of DG [26].Figure 17.14 V/f control, (a): voltage control (b): frequency control [26–28].Figure 17.15 Flowchart of GWO technique [21, 23, 27].Figure 17.16 Hybrid GWO and P&O technique [22, 27, 28].Figure 17.17 Pseudo code of WOA technique.
18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Classification of techniques for islanding detection in microgrid.Figure 18.2 Flowchart for intelligent islanding detection.Figure 18.3 Post-fault similarity in the three-phase current signal recorded at ...Figure 18.4 Faults in PV array.Figure 18.5 Procedure for detection and classification of distribution line and ...Figure 18.6 PV array with series-parallel combination of PV modules.Figure