from his fellows. This need for self-defense was usually a collective enterprise, as man did not live alone, but in extended families or small tribes. Eventually, these groups became large enough so that individual roles were defined. In primitive societies could be found men whose main duties were the making of weapons, hunting, or other related tasks. Throughout the feudal periods of history, wars between neighboring groups were carried on mainly by members of the aristocracy, and sometimes by peasants, who laid aside their farm implements and picked up weapons to defend their native soil.
As societies continued to grow, roles were further specialized to the extent that the economy was able to support a permanent military force. Classes of professional warriors, whose main task in life was to fight, came into existence. These were men who had the time and financial support that permitted the full-time practice of the methods of war and all its intricacies. These circumstances resulted in the development of the martial arts, the aim of whose training was to prepare men for war and to keep them in constant readiness should the need for their services arise. In different areas of the world this process took place at different times.
With the advent of firearms, the traditional martial arts began to decline in value. A conscripted soldier with a little training was capable of killing with one shot even the most heavily armored knight or the most skilled swordsman. The value placed on the arts of the sword, spear, and bow were denigrated. As this transition occurred, the continuous local warfare between neighbors began to lessen. In Japan, this began to take place when a unification process began in the seventeenth century.
The final step in the process (in Japan) that saw the decline of the warrior came with the Meiji Restoration of 1868, at which time the feudal system was abolished. Japan then saw the need to style her army along Western lines. Accordingly, the arts of the sword and spear took second place to the use of the rifle and artillery in the creation of a modern army. As Japan progressed and became involved at the turn of the century in a series of wars with other Asian countries and certain Western powers, the utilitarian function of those traditional arts declined. However, since they were a valuable part of the traditions of Japan and excellent builders of spiritual and physical strength, training in them was still encouraged. In order to derive the most benefit from their practice, newer types of contests had to be developed which would not see the death of the loser as a result. For example, the shinai, or bamboo sword, which had been used in schools of traditional sword fighting for centuries as a practice implement, became the principle weapon in the practice of kendo (sword fighting), while the live blade was reserved for practice in moves without an opponent (i.e., the kata; see Chapter 7). By wearing armor and using the shinai, schools could compete with one another and live to tell about it. Safe practice made it possible for the traditional arts, among them judo and karate, to develop into systems of physical education. In summary, the techniques of warfare had been transformed into means of physical conditioning, self-discipline, and even entertainment, that is, into sport.
In the remainder of this chapter, a general history of karate—and its development from martial art to sport—will be outlined. In subsequent chapters, the influence that the history and traditions of Japan had on this development will be examined in greater detail.
THE ORIGINS OF KARATE
Since man began his existence unarmed, systems of weaponless combat can be found throughout the world. In the Far East, these systems are very old and carry different names according to the geographical areas in which they are practiced, for example, ch'uan-fa in China, taekwon-do in Korea, and karate in Japan. For purposes of simplification the term "karate" is used herein to designate those Oriental combative arts whose main techniques involve striking an opponent with the hands or feet. In Asia this type of fighting has a long history. Among the unarmed fighting techniques, karate is perhaps the oldest form of pugilism.
The origins of the art are somewhat obscure, owing in part to the fact that it was frequently practiced in secret by groups vying for power. Since its history was not written, one has to rely on oral tradition, bits and pieces of information, and art works in order to present a complete picture.
According to legend, there existed in India a system of unarmed hand-and-foot fighting prior to 1000 B.C. Scant evidence substantiates its existence. It is known, however, that a warrior caste, the Kshatriya, dominated India before the advent of Buddhism and was in control until the rise of the Brahman caste. The Kshatriya were said to have practiced a bare-handed martial art known as vajramushti, a fighting technique that used the clenched fist as a weapon. There are numerous statues dating to the first century B.C. which depict temple guardians in poses similar to those used in fighting arts practiced later. It is these statues and the slight knowledge of the vajramushti which gives rise to the belief that karate may have originated in India. There is the possiblity, however, that the native Indian art may have been influenced by the Greeks. The conquests of Alexander the Great, who reached India in 327 B.C., may have led to the assimilation by the inhabitants of the Near East of certain fighting methods practiced in Greece.
The Greeks practiced a number of combative arts, among them a form of boxing which had long been a part of their culture. Perhaps the best evidence of the existence of such a fighting method in early times is the so-called "Boxers Vase" from Hagia Triada. Depicted on the sides of the vase are sports that have been interpreted as boxing and wrestling. The stances assumed by the figures closely resemble the zenkutsu-dachi (front stance) of modern Japanese karate. Two figures are depicted exchanging what seem to be counterpunches. In another scene one fighter has been thrown to the ground and his opponent stands over him ready to deliver a blow. The vase itself was produced on Crete, and other vases and bits of pottery with similar scenes have been found dating back to 1600 B.C.,1 establishing the existence of karate-like fighting styles in the Western world at that time.
Various aspects of Greek boxing indicate that it more closely resembled Asian fighting than the modern Western style of boxing, although it had its own unique developments. One of the latter was the cestus, a device consisting of leather thongs and strips wrapped around the hand and forearm to increase striking power. Pottery fragments have been found that clearly show the use of these attachments. In a boxing contest, blows could be delivered with the open hand as well as with the clenched fist, and there was no prohibition against striking a fallen opponent. Weight classes were nonexistent in Greek boxing, just as in the practice of Asian karate. The heavyweight boxer, therefore, had the advantage.
One dissimilarity between Greek and Asian fighting was the emphasis of the former on blows to the head. In Asian systems, the body is considered to be the better target. This difference in emphasis might be explained by basic philosophic differences. The center of the Greek spirit was considered to be the head. Typical statues of Greek athletes depict a well-developed upper torso and a handsome face. The midsection is developed but is shown as a secondary feature. By contrast, statues of Asian temple guardians all show extremely well-developed and prominent abdomens. This may be attributed to the Oriental belief that the seika tanden, the "one point," located below the navel, is the center of the body.
Typical Greek boxing matches were not divided into rounds as in present-day boxing. Fights lasted until one fighter was knocked out or signaled defeat by raising his hand. (It is interesting to note that boxing may not have been practiced in Sparta, since one contestant would have to admit defeat, quite out of keeping with Spartan tradition.2 ) Since no ring was used, boxers could not corner an opponent and rely on infighting techniques. Therefore, the use of long range attacks, strong defensive positions, and the waiting out of the opponent came into play. This is very similar to a fight between karate enthusiasts, who traditionally wait to deliver the knockout blow. Indeed, a contest today between two high-ranked karate men may consist of several long periods of waiting followed by strong, vigorous attacks.
Roman boxing, incidentally, was less of a sport than a spectacle for popular amusement. The leaders of Rome felt that boxing was not an art that had practical military applications: far better if young warriors trained in the use of spear and sword. Boxing practice was left to the gladiators, who utilized a new, deadlier type of cestus, one with metal projections, that made the sport a bloody melee. As such, Roman boxing did not