times of war. Perhaps surprisingly, complimentary television shows (A) and infectious disease outbreaks (C), such as the 1918 flu pandemic, do not alter the public's view of nurses. The Gallop Poll shows that the public considers nurses highly ethical (D).
3 Answer: C is correct.Rationale: There was not a hospital expansion during the late nineteenth century. The other answers (A, B, D) all influenced the need for formal nursing education.
4 Answer: B is correct.Rationale: Most student nurses at this time worked 12 hr shifts, although in some more progressive schools the students just worked 8 hr a day. Lectures were given in the evening after work (B). They did not have blocks of classroom time (A), days off (C), or 6 hr shifts (D).
5 Answer: B is correct.Rationale: Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing was founded in 1922. The American Society of Superintendents of Training Schools for Nurses—now the National League for Nursing was founded first in 1893 (A), the Nurses Associated Alumnae followed in 1896 (D), and the National Organization for Public Health Nurses was founded in 1912(C).
6 Answer: A is correct.Rationale: Anesthesia was first publicly used for the purpose of painless surgery in the 1840s. When antisepsis was developed in the 1880s (C) the two necessary factors for complex yet relatively safe surgeries were in place. X‐rays were developed in the late 1890s (B) and penicillin in the 1940s (D).
7 Answer: A is correct.Rationale: More nurses were needed, which exacerbated an already severe post war nursing shortage. The Act didn't have an impact on patient acuity (B), or hospital insurance (C), and Medicaid was not initiated until the 1960s (D).
8 Answer: D is correct.Rationale: While the wounded doubtless needed more nurses, the other three reasons given (A, B, C) also significantly exacerbated the shortage.
9 Answer: A is correct.Rationale: The early programs really did just take two years—one of general education and one of nursing. More recently, the AD nursing curriculum has expanded and more general education courses may be required and these programs typically take longer. Answers B, C, and D are incorrect.
10 Answer: C is correct.Rationale: Wald is considered to be the founder of public health nursing. She was not in education (A) and she was not a midwife (B). Some could consider her an administrator (D)—she ran the Henry Street Settlement—but her primary role was in public health.
REVIEW ACTIVITIES
1 Explore the images on the National Library of Medicine's images website. www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/ihm, Accessed May 30, 2019.
2 Identify a content area you are interested in from the National Library of Medicine Images website (e.g., WWI, WWII, 1950s health care, magic lantern slides, or public domain images) and pull out about six images for discussion.
3 Explore one of the traveling exhibits on the National Library of Medicine website at www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/about/exhibition/index.html Accessed May 30, 2019.
4 Click on the “digital gallery” tab found on the National Library of Medicine traveling exhibits website. Find an image that is particularly meaningful to you and describe why it is significant.
5 This chapter has mentioned scores of nurses. There are millions more. Contact or identify a nurse who practiced 50 or more years ago and discover her or his history.
6 Identify a nursing intervention, such as assessing blood pressure or giving an enema, and explore the Internet, journals, textbooks for historical use of that intervention and the changes over time related to that intervention (This question taken from Lewenson, 2004).
DISCUSSION POINTS
1 In the chapter's opening paragraph, Dr. Sandra Lewenson states that studying history provides us with opportunity. A nursing student was inspired by the story of Mary Breckinridge, who in 1925 founded the Frontier Nursing Service in Kentucky. The history of Breckinridge gave that student her opportunity. She traveled to Kentucky to personally find out about the Frontier Nursing Service as soon as she could. How can the knowledge of nursing's past provide you with an opportunity?
2 Most nurses in the late nineteenth century wanted nurses to be licensed by the state before they could practice nursing. However, Florence Nightingale disagreed with the concept of nurse licensure. What are some of the benefits of licensure for nurses? Why didn't Nightingale want nurses to be licensed?
3 Before the later nineteenth century, there were many men in nursing. Why do you think Nightingale and many doctors preferred women as nurses? How do you think this early opposition toward men in nursing has affected the nursing profession today?
4 Mildred Montag's dissertation work introduced the concept of community college education for, what she termed, nursing technicians. Do you think that the separation of nurses' roles into technical roles and professional roles was ever a workable model?
DISCUSSION OF OPENING SCENARIO
1 Nursing's knowledge base has expanded in the same way that medical science has expanded over the last 150 years. Historically, nurses have taken the lead in public health and practiced autonomously for many years, particularly among the indigent.
2 Doctorally prepared nurses are necessary to maintain and develop nursing's knowledge base for practice, health care policy, and health care administration. Consider the extent of scientific knowledge on one hand and the inadequate quality of U.S. health care on the other. Well‐educated nurses are needed to redress this inequity. As more nursing education is necessary so more research‐based faculty are needed to teach nurses. Other clinical health care fields (e.g., dentistry, pharmacy, physical therapy, and medicine) require a doctoral level of education. Nurses should not, considering their high level of responsibility, be less well prepared.
3 There have always been males and other minorities within nursing. During the late nineteenth century, the development of professional nursing resulted in males and other minorities being excluded. White women were seen as entitled to have professional nursing as their own profession. Few training schools and professional organizations accepted males and other minorities. Male only and African American only training schools were founded; the latter also served as training and practice sites for African American physicians and other health care workers.
EXPLORING THE WEB
North Carolina nursing history, accessed November 11, 2018:http://nursinghistory.appstate.edu
Nursing Clio, accessed November 11, 2018:https://nursingclio.org
Florida nursing history, accessed November 11, 2018:https://fnhxp.nursingnetwork.com
American Association for the History of Nursing, accessed November 27, 2018:www.aahn.org
National Library of Medicine, History of Medicine, accessed November 27, 2018:www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd
Rush University Medical Center Archives, accessed November 27, 2018:https://rUShu.libguides.com/rUSharchives
Midwest Nursing History Research Center, University of Illinois, accessed November 27, 2018:http://nursing.uic.edu/our-impact/research/centers-labs-interest-groups/midwest-nursing-history-research-center
Barbara Bates Center for the Study of the History of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, accessed November 27, 2018:www.nursing.upenn.edu/history
Eleanor Crowder Bjoring Center for Nursing Historical Inquiry, University of Virginia, accessed November 27, 2018:www.nursing.virginia.edu/nursing-history
INFORMATICS
1 Visit the Nursing Clio website at https://nursingcleo.org and review an article related to nursing.
LEAN BACK
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