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Phytopharmaceuticals


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diseases, obesity, and related diseases. Whereas, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids have health benefits as cardio protectors due to their anti-inflammatory, antiarrhythmic, and antithrombotic effects [71]. Industry and consumers have shown interest in vegetable oils from different sources, such as olive, canola flaxseed, chia, avocado and moringa since the discovery of their health benefits (Table 2.1).

      Oils with higher unsaturation degree are very susceptible to oxidation reactions during which their fatty acids decompose to small volatile molecules that generate unpleasant aromas and toxic compounds (aldehyde, ketones, epoxides, hydroxyl compounds). This leads to decrease the shelf life, functionality, nutritional value, and add safety concerns, as well as the non-acceptance by consumers. The strategy to reduce oils deterioration is microencapsulation, as will be explained in Section 2.3.3.

      2.2.6 Bioactives From Agroindustrial Wastes

       2.2.6.1 Commercial Edible Flowers

Oil source Fatty acids composition (%w/w) Benefits Ref.
Oleic acid Linoleic acid Linolenic acid
Olive 66.4 16.4 <1.0 Anti-ulcer, anti-aging and plasma cholesterol-lowering properties. Increment of bone mineral density. [72]
Canola 59.5 18.8 11.9 Reduction of type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis risk, and cardiovascular disease. [70]
Flaxseed 18.1 15.3 58 Reduction of tumour growth at the later stage of carcinogenesis and LDL cholesterol level. [71]
Chia 5.4 19.7 65.4 Improvement in the fetal and infant growth and prevention of cardiovascular diseases. [73]
Avocado 74 9.7 <1.0 Improvement in the blood lipid profiles (lowering LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides). [74]
Moringa 78.2 1.29 <1.0 Reduction of rheumatism, hypertension and arthritis. [75]

      Flowers contain natural nutrients, vitamins and bioactive compounds like phenolic acids, anthocyanins, betalains, and carotenoids [76]. The three latter are associated with the different colors of their petals, in a wide chroma spectrum [77, 78]. Rose petals have been used since ancient times in food preparation of salads, cakes, teas, desserts, drinks and innumerable meals [79]. These condiments have been maintained in the traditional kitchen in countries like China, Mexico and Brazil, and they have acquired notorious relevance due to their medicinal qualities and healthy properties.

      Rose petals contain phenolics (flavonoids, tannins), carotenoids (β-carotene, lycopene), ascorbic acid, tocopherol and essential oils [81, 82]. Flavonoids, gallic acid, protocatechinic and chorogenic acid from rose petals extracts have shown anti-proliferative effect against cancer cells [83–85].

      The predominant anthocyanins in red rose petals are pelargonidin and cyaniding glucosides [86]. These water-soluble pigments are associated to many health-promoting activities (against cancer, diabetics, and oxidative damage). They also arouse the interest of their potential use as natural food colorants [87].

      Antimicrobial activity of Rosa Rugosa Thunb. methanolic extracts against eight bacteria has been reported [51]. Besides, ethanolic extracts of rose petals showed greater inhibition zone of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa than the maximum concentration of the antibiotic streptomycin [88].

      On the other hand, the hexane fraction of R. rugose Thunb. was able to prevent oxidative damage by free radicals scavenging and inhibited lipid peroxidation [89].

      In orange pink color rose varieties, important carotenes content was detected [90]. Some of them, such as β-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin are vitamin A (retinol) precursors when ingested by mammals. The contribution of this vitamin to alleviate blindness, illness and premature death among children under five years of age and pregnant women [91] is well known. Carotenoid-rich diets have been also shown to be associated with a lower development rate of different cancers and chronic diseases [92].

       2.2.6.2 Coffee Grounds as Source of Prebiotics

      Due to the high consumption of coffee drinks, after extraction with hot water, coffee grounds are valuable primary products. During coffee processing, different by-products are generated such as: a) silver skin produced during the roasting of the coffee beans, after the previous removal of the outer skin and pulp of the dried fruit; b) coffee grounds generated after grinding and extraction with hot water of roasted coffee beans. Coffee grounds formed by small particles, while the silver coffee skin has a much larger particles and a large amount of soluble dietary fiber [93].