1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of the components of lignocelluloses.Figure 1.2 Parallelism between the production of PET (left) and PEF (right).... 2 Chapter 2Scheme 2.1 Types of acid catalysts and acid‐catalyzed activations. Sub, subs...Scheme 2.2 Acid‐catalyzed valorization of biomacromolecules. R, H or organyl...Scheme 2.3 Proposed structure and mechanism of catalytic action of the cellu...Scheme 2.4 Acid‐catalyzed hydrolysis of cellulose into low‐molecular‐weight ...Scheme 2.5 Proposed formation of catalytic species in [C n mim]Cl. R, alkyl; n...Scheme 2.6 Unusual acid‐catalyzed transformations of cellulose in zinc chlor...Figure 2.1 Acid‐catalyzed transformation of cellulose into low‐molecular‐wei...Figure 2.2 Acid‐catalyzed valorization of cellulose via the Biofine process....Scheme 2.7 Monolignols and possible linkages in lignin (specific bond types ...Scheme 2.8 Proposed acid‐catalyzed cleavage of lignin models (specific bond ... 3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Structures of basic catalysts commonly used in heterogeneous cata...Scheme 3.1 Reaction mechanism of aldol condensation with basic catalyst.Scheme 3.2 Aldol condensation of furanic aldehydes with acetone.Scheme 3.3 Aldol condensation between HMF and acetofenone.Scheme 3.4 Aldol condensation of ethyl levulinate followed by hydrodeoxygena...Scheme 3.5 Strategy for the synthesis of C10 oxygenates from furfural and an...Scheme 3.6 Self‐condensation of acetone into mesityl oxide, followed by hydr...Scheme 3.7 Aldol condensation of ethanol to C4 products (Guerbet reaction)....Scheme 3.8 Formation of C4–C12 products by stepwise aldol condensation of et...Scheme 3.9 Ketonization reaction of carboxylic acids into ketones.Scheme 3.10 Proposed mechanism for the ketonization of carboxylic acids over...Scheme 3.11 Conversion of levulinic acid into 5‐nonanone by cascade reaction...Scheme 3.12 Production of biodiesel by transesterification of triglycerides ...Scheme 3.13 Transesterification of cyclic carbonate with glycerol for the pr...Scheme 3.14 Synthesis of glycerol carbonate by carbonylation with urea. 4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 A representation of various pathways for the transformation of li...Figure 4.2 Representation of phenomena resulting in the modification of supp...Figure 4.3 Representation of wet impregnation (WI) procedure.Figure 4.4 Representation of incipient wet impregnation (IWI) procedure.Figure 4.5 Representation of sol immobilization procedure.Figure 4.6 Representation of the transformation of a generic pentosan to fur...Figure 4.7 Possible products obtained from furfural conversion.Figure 4.8 Representation of possible products obtained via hydrogenation of...Figure 4.9 5‐Hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) oxidation to 5‐hydroxymethyl‐2‐fur...Figure 4.10 TEM and HRTEM images of (a) Pt‐NC, (b) Pt‐NO, and (c) Pt‐NS samp...Figure 4.11 Possible effect of P‐content on Pt0/Pt2+ ratio. Source: Camp...Figure 4.12 Elemental mapping of AuPd–nNiO using electron energy loss spectr... 5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Depolymerization of lignocellulose via gasification or enzymatic ...Figure 5.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch.Figure 5.3 Structures of building blocks of algal polysaccharides.Figure 5.4 Fermentative production of lower alcohols and olefins.Figure 5.5 Fermentative production of diols.Figure 5.6 Mono‐ and dicarboxylic acids produced by fermentation.Figure 5.7 Synthesis of bio‐based PEF from HMF.Figure 5.8 Biocatalytic aerobic oxidation of HMF.Figure 5.9 Alternative routes to FDCA.Figure 5.10 Enzymatic synthesis of bio‐based polyesters. 6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Schematic of biomass composition. Source: From Nitsos et al. [9]....Figure 6.2 Relevant anhydrosugars from the pyrolysis of cellulose. LG, levog...Figure 6.3 Examples of transglycosylation, ring opening, and fragmentation r...Figure 6.4 Examples of chemical substances obtained from LGO. Source: From I...Figure 6.5 The pathway of levoglucosenone formation. Source: From Ohnishi et...Figure 6.6 The mechanism of LAC formation.Figure 6.7 Bioactive products from LAC chiral building block: tetrahydrofura...Figure 6.8 Chemicals produced from furfural. Source: From Brunow et al. [95]...Figure 6.9 Some typical aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols from lignocellulos... 7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Examples of pyrolysis products from lignocellulose and classifica...Figure 7.2 IPy, intermediate pyrolysis; FPy, fast pyrolysis; ChG, char gasif...Figure 7.3 Graphical description of the two rules that describe the stoichio...Figure 7.4 Free energy change for oxidation of 1 g of COD of fermentation pr...Figure 7.5 Graphic description of a model biological reactor for conversion ...Figure 7.6 Graphic description of the calculation of toxic units for a non‐b...Figure 7.7 Dilution volume (VIC50) needed to bring the inhibition from conde...Figure 7.8 Hybrid pyrolysis fermentation pathway for obtainment of mixed VFA...Figure 7.9 Hybrid pyrolysis MMC fermentation pathway for obtainment of C3–C6...Figure 7.10 Hybrid pyrolysis MMC fermentation pathway for obtainment of PHA....Figure 7.11 Hybrid pyrolysis MMC fermentation pathway for obtainment of alco... 8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Typical routes toward production of fuels and platform chemicals ...Figure 8.2 Electrochemical reaction types: (a) direct electron transfer on i...Figure 8.3 Schematic representation of TEMPO‐mediated oxidation of alcohols....Figure 8.4 Possible D‐sorbitol oxidation pathways. Source: Adapted from Kwon...Figure 8.5 Simplified pathway of electro‐deoxygenation of xylose to δ‐valero...Figure 8.6 Chemicals produced from 5‐HMF with electrolysis.Figure 8.7 Reaction pathways of electrochemical 5‐HMF oxidation.Figure 8.8 Schematic of possible 5‐HMF hydrogenation pathways in acidic cond...Figure 8.9 Plausible 5‐HMF hydrogenation mechanisms. Top and middle pathways...Figure 8.10 Electrochemical reduction of 5‐HMF to BHMF, 2,5‐hexanedione, and...Figure 8.11 Chemicals produced from furfuryl with electrolysis.Figure 8.12 Electrochemical reduction pathways of furfural to 2‐MF. Source: ...Figure 8.13 Reaction equations of furfural oxidation to maleic acid and furo...Figure 8.14 Proposed electrochemical oxidation routes of furfural. Source: A...Figure 8.15 Chemicals produced from levulinic acid with electrolysis.Figure 8.16 Reaction pathways of the electrochemical reduction (solid arrows...Figure 8.17 Reaction pathways of the electrochemical glycerol oxidation. Sou...Figure 8.18 Filter press type electrochemical flow reactor ElectroSyn Cell® ...Figure 8.19 Bench‐scale electrochemical flow reactor stacked with Ni/NiOOH f...Figure 8.20 Scheme of cation exchange membrane (CEM) and anion exchange memb... 9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Monolignol building blocks and typical substructures found in nat...Figure 9.2 Photoredox reductive and oxidative quenching cycles, typical oxid...Scheme 9.1 Photocatalytic Cα—Cβ bond cleavage in β‐O‐4 and β‐1 lig...Scheme 9.2 Photocatalytic PCET‐promoted Cα—Cβ bond cleavage in β‐O...Scheme 9.3 Photocatalytic PCET‐promoted
