inscription carved on the sarcophagus of King Eshmunazor II, an important historical inscription, dated about 550–525 BCE (Elayi 1989: pp. 37–79). The funeral inscription of his father, King Tabnit, is slightly earlier. More than 25 foundation inscriptions of King Bodashtart were discovered in the Eshmun temple near Sidon, dated about 525–500 BCE (Bonnet and Xella 2000: pp. 93–104). Bodashtart also made an inscription for inaugurating the Saltani channel (Xella and Zamora 2004: pp. 273–300). Among several votive inscriptions, the inscription of King Baalshillem II gives his royal genealogy: Baalshillem I, Abdamon, Baana, and Baalshillem II (Stucky 2005: pp. 273–318). Monetary inscriptions must not be neglected because they are very useful for history and chronology. They give the kings' abbreviated names and their yearly dating between 401 and 333 provides the dates of the reigns: Baalshillem II (401–366), Abdashtart I (365–352), Tennes (351–347), Evagoras (?) (346–343), and Abdashtart II (342–333) (Elayi and Elayi 2004: pp. 437–470; Elayi 2006: pp. 14–21). Other Sidonian inscriptions are ostraca, magical squares, workshop marks, and graffiti.
There are approximately 50 Tyrian inscriptions, but almost all of them are very short. Among the votive and funeral inscriptions, one dated about 532 BCE possibly gives the names of the kings Hiram III and Ittobaal IV, another mentions the “chief of the hundred,” and two written in Punic on stelae are related to Carthago's sons (Sader 2005: pp. 80–84). The monetary inscriptions give the abbreviated names of some kings such as Ozmilk, who reigned from about 349 to 333 BCE (Elayi and Elayi 2009: pp. 221–252; Elayi 2006: pp. 21–25). Other Tyrian inscriptions are inscribed on gold, lapis‐lazuli, and bronze amulets, tokens, bullae, fiscal, and personal seals (Lozachmeur and Pezin 1994: pp. 361–371; Bordreuil 1986: pp. 82–86; Sader 1990: pp. 318–321).
For Byblos, about 30 inscriptions have been published. Three are funeral inscriptions for King Shipitbaal III's son dated about 500 BCE, for an anonymous king dated about 400 BCE, and for Batnoam, King Ozbaal's mother, in about 400 BCE. The most important one is the votive inscription of King Yehawmilk dated about 450 BCE (Elayi 2009: pp. 14–23). The monetary inscriptions provide the names of four kings: Elpaal, Ozbaal, Urimilk, and Aynel. A magic inscription on a silver amulet possibly gives the name of King Shipitbaal III (Lemaire 2003: pp. 155–174). Other Byblian inscriptions are carved on statues, pottery, and seals.
The inscriptions of Arwad, Amrit, and Tartous opposite the island are still less numerous. Some inscriptions from the sanctuary of Amrit (Maabed) are devoted to the healing god (Puech 1986: pp. 327–342). The monetary inscriptions give the abbreviated names of some kings such as Gerashtart, who reigned from 339 to at least 333 BCE (Elayi 2007: pp. 99–104). Lead weights from Arwad, Amrit, and Tartous bear some short inscriptions of values, useful for metrology (Elayi and Elayi 1997: pp. 155–181).
Other Inscriptions from the Levantine Seashore
With the exception of Amrit and Tartous inscriptions, the Phoenician inscriptions are rare and very short in northern Phoenicia, at Al Mina, Ras el‐Bassit, Ras Shamra, Tell Kazel (ancient Simyra), and the Nahr el‐Barid. About 20 short inscriptions were discovered in Beirut, mainly ostraca, graffiti, and weights (Sader 1998: pp. 203–213). Several inscriptions come from the excavations of Sarafand (ancient Sarepta): a letter, an abecedary, seals, and votive inscriptions, one of them inscribed on an ivory tablet dedicated to Tanit‐Ashtart. Not far from Sarepta, at Kharayeb, another votive inscription on a statue was found.
In southern Phoenicia, many inscriptions were discovered during an extensive archaeological exploration. However, almost all of them are short and not very significant (Delavault and Lemaire 1979: pp. 1–37; Lemaire 2000: pp. 97–113). Some very short inscriptions on ceramics were found in Tell Keisan and a fiscal seal is related with this area. Some ostraca come from Akko, one of them mentioning the order given by the political power to the metal workers to make 302 cultic vessels for the temple. Several short inscriptions on jars, ostraca, graffiti, personal, and fiscal seals were discovered in Tell Abu Hawam, Haifa, Shiqmona, and Atlit. Ostraca from Dor mention the name of an official from Sidon and a list of agricultural tools. Coming from the area of Elyakhin in the Sharon plain, metallic bowls bear several votive inscriptions. Some short inscriptions were found in Apollonia‐Arsuf, Tel Michal, Jaffa, Ashkelon, and Gaza: inscriptions on jars, ostraca, graffiti, and weights.
Inscriptions from Cyprus
Many inscriptions, some of them very important, were found in all areas of the island of Cyprus, which was part of the Persian Empire. The most significant are the economical archives of the palace of Idalion, most of them still unpublished. It is the only existing epigraphic source for the Phoenician economy. There are at least 270 Phoenician inscriptions: gypsum tablets, ostraca, and “labels” (Sznycer 2004: pp. 86–100). The 156 inscriptions found in Larnaka (ancient Kition) are published: funeral and votive inscriptions, ostraca, inscriptions on pottery, and mainly temple tariffs (Amadasi and Karageorghis 1977: pp. 11–189). A votive inscription from Larnaka‐tis‐Lapithou (ancient Lapethos), carved on a marble stone, is dated between 345 and 315 BCE, possibly under the reign of King Praxippos II. Another votive inscription from Lapethos, dated from the fourth century, is bilingual (Phoenician and Greek). A commemorative inscription of Milkyaton, king of Kition and Idalion, found in Tamassos, gives information on a victory against the Paphians in 392/391 BCE. A sarcophagus bears the inscription of Eshmunadon, governor of Tyre, dated from the fourth century. Various other inscriptions, in general short, come from Vouni, Kourion, Alassa, Ayia Irini, Athienou (Golgoi), Pergamos, and Salamis (Masson and Sznycer 1972: pp. 86–128).
Other Inscriptions from the Persian Empire
In the other parts of the Persian Empire, the Phoenician inscriptions are much less numerous. In Syria, inscribed weights come from Homs and a short inscription dated from the fourth century was found in Karkemish. In Israel, ostraca, bullae, short inscriptions, and stamps on pottery were found in Hazor, Khirbet el‐Kom, Wadi Daliyeh, and Sichem. A bronze situla from Har Mispeh Yamim bears a votive inscription to Ashtart. The ostraca of Tell el‐Kheleifeh near Elat testify to Phoenician trade in the Red Sea during the Persian period. Small Phoenician inscriptions were also discovered in Egypt: in Memphis, Tell el‐Maskhuta, Abusir, and Elephantine.
There are several inscriptions which originate from antiquities markets whose provenance is unknown. Some Phoenician inscriptions dated from the Persian period were also found outside the Persian Empire, in the Greek world and in the western Mediterranean. In the Near East, the great number of inscriptions dated from the Persian period shows that writing was widespread during this period, and not only reserved for professional scribes. The graffiti on pottery and coins were made by anybody who had an appropriate writing tool available. Most of the inscriptions are engraved on hard supports such as stone, metal (bronze, lead, silver, gold), ivory, and ceramics. A few only were painted in black or red on pottery. In general, the writing has a cursive character, except in monumental inscriptions which are not numerous. The monumental inscriptions are votive, funeral, or commemorative; none is a political decree, so numerous in Greek cities. Other categories of inscriptions are economical (archives, tariffs, lists), fiscal, monetary, magical, personal seals, indications of ownership, weights, letters, workshop marks, tokens, bullae, abecedaries … As no corpus of all the Phoenician inscriptions from the Persian period exists as yet, and since their historical information is scarce and scattered, it is necessary for the historian to use them extensively, but as a complement to other kinds of sources.
REFERENCES
1 Amadasi M.G., Karageorghis, V. (1977). Kition III: Inscriptions phéniciennes. Nicosia: Zavellis Press.
2 Bonnet, C., Xella, P. (2000). Les inscriptions de Bodashtart roi de Sidon. In M.G. Amadasi Guzzo, M. Liverani, and P. Matthiae (eds.), Da Pyrgi a Mozia: Studi sull’archeologia del Mediterraneo in memoria di Antonia Ciasca. Roma: Universita di Roma La Sapienza, pp. 93–104.
3 Bordreuil, P. (1986). Attestations inédites de Melqart, Baal