Herodotus had the possibility of giving account of the customs and conventions of the many different peoples of the world, including in his considerations the stories of the former kingdoms of the Lydians, the Medes, the Babylonians, and the Egyptians. The power of the Persian Empire seemed to have reached its apogee under Darius I. From this point onward, the conflicts between the Greek and Persian worlds began to gain increasing importance. Herodotus depicts the Persian Wars as a set of related events starting with the Ionian Revolt and ending with the success in fending off Xerxes' invasion army. His account of events ends when the Athenians begin to extend their power over the Aegean after their victories at Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale in 480 and 479 BCE, thus following in the footsteps of the Persians. He only briefly comments on the further history of the Greeks that was characterized by growing conflicts between Athens and Sparta, which had stood united against the external enemy. These conflicts culminated in the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE. The famous events of the past assume the role of a teaching play, which serves as a starting point for assessing the tragedy of the current period from the point of view of Herodotus and his audience (Bichler 2000; Bichler and Rollinger 2011; Bakker et al. 2002; Dewald and Marincola 2006; Rollinger 2004 Degen 2017; Irwin 2013; Irwin 2017).
Herodotus' ethnographical accounts, especially those of Persian customs and conventions (cf. 1.131–140), are basically interpreted from a Greek point of view and give an ambiguous mirror image. The empire of the Persians is characterized by impressive resources. Its infrastructure, such as the network of roads and the messenger service, is astounding (5.52–54; 8.98). The Persians owed their power to a simple way of life that was organized according to strict rules (cf. 1.71, 89; 9.122), but the propensity of the elite to a luxurious lifestyle puts their attainments at risk. Nevertheless, scenes of luxury, intrigues, and harems at court, which are described excessively in later accounts, appear only rarely in Herodotus (cf. 3.130; 9.108–113). In spite of their luxury lifestyle, the Persians prove to be brave warriors even in defeat. Nevertheless, there is a tendency to interpret Persian kingship with its claim of universality and its supportive ceremonial, like the practice of proskynesis (bowing/prostrating oneself before the king), in a critical way. Herodotus' accounts of the Great Kings are quite differentiated. But there is a basic pattern of their misconduct. They break the rules and cultic commandments of their own society and tend to overestimate their own power while underestimating the enemy. Thus, they fail in all their megalomaniacal campaigns. But in this regard, the various tyrants and despots resemble each other, no matter whether they are of Non‐Greek or of Hellenic origin!
Herodotus also describes a series of Persian characters of noble spirit, wisdom, bravery, and courage who are prepared to go as far as self‐sacrifice (cf. 3.80.2–80.5; 83). Wise Persians warn against the dangers of hubris and deplore the human inability to avoid fatal events (cf. 7.10; cf. 7.18, 45–52; 9.16). At times, the Greeks are even put to shame through the example of the Persian kings. Cyrus condemns the dubious activities and the cheating that took place in the Agora (1.153). Darius I shows respect to foreign customs (3.38). Even a despotic ruler like Xerxes does not want to infringe legal principles such as the protection of envoys, in harsh contrast to the Athenians' misbehavior in the Peloponnesian War (7.134–137) (Bichler 2000; Dorati 2000; Jacobs 2003; Rollinger 2010).
From the Peloponnesian War to Alexander
The relationship between the various Greek communities and the Persian Empire in the subsequent period was characterized by acts of war as well as intensive diplomatic activities. In his accounts of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides delivers the wording of three treaties that were signed in 412 BCE between Sparta and Darius II as well as the satrap Tissaphernes. This alliance changed the balance of power within Greece (8.18, 37, 58). An earlier alliance between Athens and Persia referred to by the rhetorician Andocides is debated in modern scholarship (On the peace with Sparta § 29) (Wiesehöfer 2006).
Thucydides' unfinished work was followed up by the first part of Xenophon's Hellenica (books 1–2) which describes the last phase of the Peloponnesian War and the following civil war in Athens (411–403/1 BCE). Its second part (books 3–6) comprises the events up to 362 BCE and exemplifies Sparta's attempts to hold a permanent supremacy in Greece. The Persian Empire is focused insofar as Greek politics are concerned – such as the wars in Asia Minor, Cyprus, and the Aegean or the King's Peace of 387/6 BCE. The anonymous Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, which were probably written a little bit later, are only fragmentarily preserved. They give further accounts of Sparta's campaigning in Asia Minor (400–394 BCE). However, for Artaxerxes II (404–359) another campaign, which had been launched in Asia Minor shortly before, appeared far more menacing. It was the rebellion of his brother, Cyrus the Younger, which came to an end in the battle of Cunaxa near Babylon with Cyrus' death (401 BCE). This event was crucial for the further Greek image of the Persian Empire thanks to two extremely heterogenic accounts, namely Ctesias' Persica and Xenophon's Anabasis (Tuplin 1993; Bleckmann 2006).
Ctesias of Cnidus wrote one of the most influential accounts conceptualizing the world of the Persian Empire as an “Orient” avant la lettre. Although his work Persica (originally 23 books) came down to us only through its use by later authors, its textual structure and the literary talent of the author are still noticeable. The Persian Empire appears as part of a preceding line of empires ruling all over Asia that began with the Assyrians and continued with the Medes. However, like Herodotus, Ctesias conceptualized at the empire's eastern fringes a large sway of land that could not be conquered by the Persians or by their Assyrian predecessors. This land, which was dubbed “India” by the Greek authors, had access to incredible resources. Ctesias dedicated a small booklet to the description of this country. Indica depicts a seemingly ageless world and constitutes a counterpart to the monumental history of events of the Persica (books 7–23). Ctesias presented himself as an eye and ear witness, first as a physician of the king, Artaxerxes II, and his mother, Parysatis, and finally even as a successful diplomat (F 30). He saw the king's court as a dark center of power, but despite all their resources and their huge army, the kings themselves appear as rather weak. At court, influential advisors who are often depicted as eunuchs play a dominant role. Outside, the fortune of the empire depends on the loyalty of satraps and generals. Ctesias ascribed a special role to the royal women at court. Queens such as Parysatis, the mother of Cyrus the Younger and Artaxerxes II, as well as Amestris (Xerxes' widow) appear as dominant agents of intrigues and cruelty. There is controversy in modern scholarship as to whether Ctesias' accounts are related more to fact or to fiction. Their literary value is widely appreciated. Ctesias created dramatic scenes and impressive novelistic accounts. To present alternative stories to those of Herodotus was part of his literary program. How far he managed to draw on authentic folklore and local traditions is hard to tell (Bichler 2011; Wiesehöfer et al. 2011; Rollinger 2010; Waters 2020).
Writing Persica became popular in the fourth century BCE. The Persica by Dinon of Colophon, of which 30 fragments are preserved, require special mention. Like Ctesias, he created a kaleidoscopic picture of the Great King's court with its luxury and intrigues, but he tried to “correct” his predecessor in many points. He entered new terrain with the description of the reigns of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III up to the reconquest of Egypt in 343/2 BCE. The Persica of Heraclides of Cumae, of which only seven fragments still exist, also include a series of elaborate accounts of the luxurious way of life at court and in the harem. These Persica had considerable influence on the works of later authors. This is especially true for the prehistory of the Persian Empire and the period from Artaxerxes I to Artaxerxes II, which was not treated by Herodotus any more (Lenfant 2009; Madreiter 2012).
An alternative, idealizing view of the Persian Empire was created by Xenophon. This already becomes obvious in parts of his first work, the Anabasis. The destiny of the Ten Thousand, the Greek mercenaries, who had taken part in Prince Cyrus' disastrous campaign against the Great King, were in the center of action. Although they had remained undefeated in battle, they were forced to take a route through the territory of the enemy up to the Black Sea, after having lost their commander through a deceit of the satrap Tissaphernes. Thus, Xenophon had the chance to present his skills as a responsible officer. For him, Cyrus the Younger had been a model of prudent leadership and he set an impressive