would say “lord” rather than the holy name. English translations reflect this combination when they put “lord” in all capital letters (LORD), indicating that this particular “lord” is Yahweh. (Note “Jehovah” is the word that is produced when you simply pronounce the consonants of YHWH with the vowels for the Hebrew word for “lord.”)
We will be focusing here on the state of the Bible before such prohibitions on pronouncing the divine name existed. So there will be occasions where it will be helpful to refer to Israel’s God by the name Yahweh.
Historical criticism is a family of historical methods that analyzes how and where the biblical texts (and oral traditions in them) were composed. “Criticism” in this case does not mean that historical critics find fault with the biblical texts that they study, but that they use academically critical analysis to arrive at their conclusions rather than starting on the basis of faith assumptions. Through tradition criticism, for example, biblical scholars attempt to identify early oral traditions standing behind the biblical text. For example, past tradition critics have supposed that the following song of Miriam may be one of the earliest traditions in the Bible to speak of the defeat of the Egyptian army at the Red Sea:
Sing to Yahweh, for he has been victorious
Horse and rider, he has thrown into the sea. (Exod 15:21)
The next chapter will discuss places where other texts of the Bible, though being later written texts, still reflect the general outlines of earlier oral traditions.
Many scholars, however, focus not on how the Bible was formed, but on what it means and has meant to generations of readers of the Bible. For example, literary criticism has drawn on methods in the study of modern literature to study the plot, characterization, pacing, and shape of biblical texts. Scholars employing such criticism have examined Exodus 1–15 as if it were a novel, looking at how the story is artfully told: how is Moses introduced and characterized? How does this contrast with the characterization of the Egyptians and their leaders? What does the reader expect and learn as the narrative unfolds? Such study of the poetic and narrative dynamics of biblical texts is distinct from study of how such texts have been interpreted by later readers, which is the history of interpretation. Historians of interpretation study how the story of the exodus became central to Judaism and Christianity in different ways. For example, the exodus story is the centerpiece of the Jewish celebration of Passover and is a founding story for the Christian practices of baptism and Eucharist.
Finally, various forms of ideological criticism analyze ways that the exodus story can be, has been, and should be read in the midst of systemic structures of power. For example, early feminist criticism lifted up the importance of the story of the midwives in the lead-up to the exodus (Exod 1:15–21), and later feminist critics have raised questions about the male (androcentric) focus of the exodus story and most other parts of the Bible.
This is just a sampling of some of the different types of academic research that are used to investigate the Bible and its readings. Across this Introduction numerous other forms of biblical criticism will be introduced.
Looking Forward to the Big Picture
This chapter has given an overview, which will be filled in by the following chapters. It may be disorienting to encounter so many terms and dates at once. Nevertheless, it is important to get this larger picture in order to understand the details of what follows. The next seven chapters of this Introduction will unfold the story of the creation of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. This story moves from discussion of oral traditions in pre-literate Israel all the way through to the writing of the latest books of the Hebrew Bible during the Hellenistic (and Hasmonean) period. Though the first chapters will uncover a strange and different ancient Israel unfamiliar to many readers, this historical approach will illuminate many aspects of the Bible that otherwise make little sense. In addition, it will provide a starting point for engaging other scholarly methods of looking at biblical texts in new ways. Similarly, Chapters 9–15 will trace the development of the New Testament writings, beginning with a discussion of the earliest oral traditions about Jesus.
Of course, the analysis of the formation of the Bible and its texts is always in flux. Within the space of this brief Introduction we will only be able to touch on a few of the major debates. Nevertheless, scholars have been doing this kind of historical analysis of the Bible for about three hundred years, and these efforts have produced some interesting and important results. This textbook draws on the breadth of that scholarship in giving a historical orientation to the Bible that can be a starting point for further study, questioning, and correction. For now, use this textbook as your initial guide, rather than doing internet searches on Bible-related topics (internet sites are particularly variable in quality). Each chapter concludes with recommended written resources, and this chapter concludes with websites that also provide high-quality resources for further study.
CHAPTER ONE REVIEW
1 Know the meaning and significance of the following terms discussed in this chapter:Israel (two meanings)Israelite (know the difference from “Israeli”)Yahwehliterary criticismtradition criticismhistorical criticism
2 Be able to identify the following areas on a map and describe their general characteristics:coastal plaincentral hill countryJordan ValleyJudahTransjordan
3 Know the dates and basic significance of the following overall periods of history:pre-state tribal periodproto-monarchyneighboring monarchiesJudah alonedestruction of JerusalemBabylonian exilePersian periodpost-exilic periodHellenistic periodHasmonean (Maccabean) monarchybeginning of the Roman perioddestruction of the Second Temple
4 Know the order in which the following empires dominated Israel and Judah:AssyrianBabylonianPersianHellenistic (or Greek)Roman
RESOURCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
Overviews of the History of Israel
1 Miller, J. Maxwell. The History of Israel: An Essential Guide. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1997.
2 Schipper, Bernd. A Concise History of Ancient Israel: From the Beginnings Through the Hellenistic Era. Translated by Michael J. Lesley. University Park, PA: Eisenbrauns, 2019.
3 Shanks, Hershel. Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple (2nd edition). Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1999.
Geography of Lands and Places Featured in the Bible
1 Atlas of the Bible Lands (revised edition). Maplewood, NJ: Hammond, 1990.
2 Rainey, Anson F., and Notley, R. Steven. The Sacred Bridge: Carta’s Atlas of the Biblical World. Jerusalem: Carta, 2006. Detailed. Much focus on reconstructing history.
3 Rogerson, John. The New Atlas of the Bible. London: McDonald, 1985. Organized not by historical periods, but by regions. Excellent photographs and art.
Discussions of Methods in Biblical Interpretation
1 McKenzie, Steven L., and Haynes, Stephen R. To Each Its Own Meaning: An Introduction to Biblical Criticisms and Their Application (2nd edition). Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999.
2 McKenzie, Steven L., and Haynes, Stephen R. New Meanings for Ancient Texts: Recent Approaches to Biblical Criticisms and Their Applications. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2013.
Especially Good Internet Resources
1 The Bible Odyssey (by the Society of Biblical Literature): www.bibleodyssey.org. This website offers a collection of short articles by biblical scholars on people, places, and things related to the Bible.