dog’s behavior.
For contemporary dogs who are not employed as working dogs, their behavioral tendencies may be more problematic than functional. For instance, a border collie without sheep to herd may take to stalking and chasing bicyclists and small children who are running. Pursuit of and nipping at the motion of feet in the dog’s vicinity is typically an undesired behavior and may even be perceived as “aggressive.” A guard dog's barking at legitimate guests may be considered inappropriately “dominant” or “territorial.” Owners may wield ill‐suited measures to try to fend off this perceived threat to their authority (Herron et al. 2009). In both cases, the tendencies that humans have bred into the dogs are recharacterized as “misbehavior” in a companion‐dog context. Giving a new owner some understanding of the breed tendencies of a dog will assist the owner in working appropriately with what could otherwise be considered puzzling or disturbing dog behavior at home.
1.6.2 Spay and Neuter and Behavior
Sterilization—spaying and neutering, or de‐sexing—is currently well established as normal, even preferable, for owned domestic dogs in the United States. Animal protection groups and humane societies advocate dog sterilization, and it is required for dog adoption from many animal shelters. A common argument for sterilization is that it improves the welfare of the individual animal. Another ostensible benefit of sterilization is reducing the population of unwanted animals; however, published evidence of the degree of such benefit in reducing intake of shelter dogs is limited (Urfer and Kaeberlein 2019).
While state laws and advocacy groups often tout behavioral improvements that result from sterilization, such as reduced roaming behavior, reduced aggression, and fewer unwanted sexual behaviors, including mounting (Horowitz 2019), research is conflicting as to these claims. Studies gauging levels of aggression by male dogs, for instance, have found variously that aggression either decreased, remained at the same level, or even increased after neutering (Bain 2020). What is clear is that sterilized dogs have been “deprived of the ability to perform one of the most fundamental natural behaviours” (Rooney and Bradshaw 2014), which, with the health and behavioral effects still debated, may most robustly reflect a cultural aversion to canine sexual practices (Horowitz 2014). Similarly, it is also clear that early removal of the source of gonadal hormones has repercussions beyond the sexual: the hormones are implicated in functions as varied as bone growth, maintaining muscle mass, and learning and memory (Horowitz 2019). Ideally, considerations about sterilization should take into account the breed, age, and sex of the dog as well as the owner’s circumstances and expectations for the dog. See Chapter 4 for further discussion of the physical and behavioral health impacts of spay and neuter.
1.6.3 Shelter Environment
Shelters can be characterized as novel environments, and while less neophobic than their wild relatives, novelty in its many forms can still act as a stressor for dogs. To support dog well‐being, shelters increasingly consider individual dog perception of the shelter and use available resources to identify and address challenges posed by new sights, social encounters (both with conspecifics and people), “loud” smells and sounds, and general unpredictability.
1.6.3.1 Age
Puppies may be particularly challenged if there is an inundation of sensory information and lack of socialization opportunities that prepare for later‐in‐life experiences. Shelters can consider dam and littermate contact, prioritize early life socialization experiences, and explore real‐world housing opportunities outside the shelter. Many dogs entering shelters are between one and three years of age and in the midst of social maturity; these dogs would benefit from many of the early life socialization considerations that younger dogs are afforded (Hammerle et al. 2015). Senior dogs may have difficulty coping with separation from an attachment figure as well as novelty. Considering behavioral differences between normal aging and cognitive dysfunction, as discussed earlier, would greatly assist this population. While collecting information on owner‐relinquished dogs is valuable—for example, through owner report or behavior observation—so too is not over speculating about a dog’s past or future. Owner reports do not always correlate with observed behaviors in shelters or subsequent homes (Stephen and Ledger 2007), and behavior may be modifiable.
1.6.3.2 Prior Kenneling
Prior experiences can affect dog perception of the shelter. Dogs with prior kenneling or sheltering showed a less‐activated stress response when introduced to a new kennel environment, while dogs without showed elevated cortisol levels (Rooney et al. 2007). Similarly, dogs relinquished from homes who had not had prior exposure to a shelter showed an increased physiological stress response without adaptation during the first week; meanwhile, dogs marked as strays and returns showed a decreased physiological stress response during that time (Hiby et al. 2006). At the same time, length of stay, coupled with behavior issues—either from before or during a dog’s shelter stay—can contribute to chronic stress and diminished well‐being.
1.6.3.3 People
Numerous studies find that the mere presence of a human can buffer a dog’s stress response to the innate challenges of the shelter environment, yet differences between dogs are also observed (Hennessy et al. 2020). Owner‐relinquished dogs—who may be separated from a figure of attachment and lose social stability and predictability—may be particularly challenged; while petting interactions as short as 15 minutes have the potential to reduce physiological stress levels, this reduction was observed in strays, not owner‐relinquished dogs (Willen et al. 2017). Additionally, peoples’ individual characteristics as well as the nature of the interaction can affect dogs. Some studies find that dogs show more comfort with people who are identified as women than men. Hennessy et al. (1998) found that when men spoke more quietly and petted in a more soothing way, men were as effective as women in maintaining lower dog stress levels. All dog lovers entering shelters should remember that each dog has his own past experiences and may perceive new people as unfamiliar or be wary of their personal characteristics. Considering how physical contact may be interpreted by the dog, allowing dogs to initiate contact and prioritizing consent (Horowitz 2021) as well as modulating one’s voice and avoiding direct eye contact can help support dogs in shelters.
1.6.3.4 Conspecifics
Pair or group housing of dogs is often recommended (Hetts et al. 1992). The presence of conspecifics can offer more social complexity—in terms of social interactions and even olfactory composition—which could decrease abnormal behaviors and mitigate stress (Taylor and Mills 2007). At the same time, social housing benefits could be confounded by increased space as well as environmental complexity. While a pilot study moving long‐term kenneled dogs from solitary to pair housing identified considerable individual variation, behavior observations generally supported social housing (Grigg et al. 2017). Socially housed dogs showed less active vigilance and a trend toward a reduction in repetitive jumping and pacing as well as a reduction in barking. While aggression or fights are offered as reasons against group housing, these concerns have not been substantiated (Mertens and Unshelm 1996). At the same time, individual dog considerations—such as a history of or observed aggression—and shelter‐level features—such as organizational philosophy, facility design, and operation and monitoring capabilities—also factor into social housing decisions.
1.6.3.5 Smells
Introduced odors have had varied effects on dogs. Dogs in the shelter exposed to diffused lavender and chamomile rested more and were less active than dogs exposed to no scent, rosemary, or peppermint (Graham et al. 2005). Introducing pheromones may also affect behavior. Dogs exposed to dog‐appeasing pheromone (DAP)—a synthetic version of the pheromone secreted by lactating females after giving birth—for three hours daily on five consecutive days lay down more compared to a control group (Amaya et al. 2020). However, while some studies observe a reduction in stress‐related