(Betula pendula) and maple (Acer heldreichii). Black pine (Pinus nigra), and the massive Munika or Heldreich pine (Pinus heldreichii) and its subspecies the Bosnian pine (Pinus leucodermis), are also found. Rich sub-alpine pastures and grasslands extend above the tree line, as do areas of scrub, sometimes dotted with juniper (including Juniperus communis). Upper mountain slopes are characterized by hardy, low thickets of dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo), known locally as planinski bor, above which typically rises an area of bare rock.
The high grasslands are rich in flowers such as milkworts (including Polygala major), flaxes (including Linum capitanum), violets (Viola calcarata) and gentians (including Gentiana acaulis and Gentiana utriculosa), together with saxifrage (Saxifraga adscendens), black vanilla orchid (Nigritella nigra) and various species of sage and thyme. Blueberries grow in profusion during the summer months. In rockier areas and on screes, species include valerian (Valeriana montana), ranunculus (Ranunculus sartorianus), alpine toadflax (Linaria alpine), alpine rock-cress (Arabis alpine) and drypis (Drypis spinosa). Snowbells (Soldanella alpina) and mountain avens (Dryas octopetala) are found among the melting snowfields. Flowers endemic to Montenegro and adjacent areas of the Balkans include Verbascum durmitoreum, Centaurea kotschyana and Pimpinella serbica.
A large stand of black pine, near Mojkovac
Dalmatian pelicans (Pelicanus crispus) in flight. Pančeva oka special reserve, Lake Skadar national park
The Montenegrin mountains are rich in alpine flowers, best seen in June or July
The best months to see the flowers are June and July.
Mammals
The brown bear (Ursus arctos) survives in Montenegro in small numbers (estimated at some 125 individuals in 2000). Not surprisingly, its distribution is limited mostly to the remotest mountain areas of the north and east. Encounters between humans and bears are very rare. The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is also said to inhabit some of the more remote mountain areas, but again, sightings are rare. Since its reappearance in the 1960s–70s, there have been scattered sightings of the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), although it is established in greater numbers over the Albanian border. Unfortunately, the population of this rare mammal appears to be in decline in the Balkans.
Other mammals include wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), pine martin (Martes martes), forest dormouse (Dryomys nitedula) and common dormouse (Glis glis).
Reptiles and amphibians
The nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes), known locally as poskok, is found in the Dinaric Alps, including Montenegro. Its venom is highly poisonous (see ‘Safety in the Mountains’, below, for snake-bite treatment). Adult specimens are typically less than 60cm in length, but may sometimes grow to 90cm. A subspecies found in Montenegro (Vipera ammodytes meridionalis) is smaller. Nose-horned vipers are either light grey or brownish copper, with a dark black zigzag pattern along the back, and are recognizable by the prominent soft horn at the end of their snout. They prefer dry, rocky hillsides, but may also be found under low bushes or around dry stone walls, and even on rock faces. The common viper, or adder (Vipera berus), known locally as šarka or šarulja, is also found, together with the subspecies Vipera berus bosniensis. (It is perhaps worth mentioning that both the nose-horned Viper and the common viper also occur in other, more frequently visited parts of Europe. For example, the former is found in northern Italy, while the latter is also found in the UK.) Another species of viper, Orsini’s viper (Vipera ursinii), is considerably more docile. Other species of snake include the large whip snake (Coluber caspius), Balkan whip snake (Coluber gemonensis), Dahl’s whip snake (Coluber najadum) and the cat snake (Telescopus fallax).
A number of lizards are common, including the Balkan green lizard (Lacerta trilineata), which grows up to 40cm in length, green lizard (Lacerta viridis), Mosor rock lizard (Lacerta mosorensis), Balkan wall lizard (Podarcis taurica), Dalmatian algyroides (Algyroides nigrop-unctatus), sharp-snouted rock lizard (Lacerta oxycephala) and Turkish gecko (Hemidactylus turcicus).
The alpine newt (Triturus alpestris) is found in lakes in the Montenegrin highlands, including an endemic subspecies (Triturus alpestris serdarus), the distribution of which is limited to Zminičko jezero, a lake on the northern flanks of Sinjajevina. A subspecies of alpine salamander (Salamandra atra prenjensis) is found along the Albanian border, in Kučka krajina. Other species of amphibian include the brilliantly spotted fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra), Balkan crested newt (Triturus marmoratus) and Balkan stream frog (Rana graeca).
Birds
Skadarsko jezero (Lake Shkodër), with its five ornithological reserves (Manastirska tapija, Grmozur, Omerova gorica, Crni zar and Pančevo oko), is one of the largest and most important ornithological sanctuaries in Europe, and an important stop on winter migration routes. Not surprisingly, it contains the greatest concentration of birdlife in Montenegro – some 270 species, a number of them quite rare. However, recent statistics indicate that the number of birds wintering here has fallen sharply over the past few years – lowering the population from more than 250,000 birds in 1999 to just 35,000 in 2005. It is possible that many are now wintering at salt flats around Ulcinj instead.
Species you may find at Skadarsko jezero or on the coast include the great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pymeus), glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus), shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) and the rare Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus).
In the mountains, some of the rare or more unusual species include the black grouse (Tetrao tetrix), cappercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), rock partridge (Alectoris graeca), goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), Lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus), griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), golden eagle (Aquilla chrysaetos), short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus), eagle owl (Bubo bubo), alpine swift (Alpus melba), horned lark (Eremophila alpestris), alpine accentor (Prunella collaris), blue rock thrush (Monticola solitarius), wallcreeper (Tichodroma muraria) and the common crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), known locally as krstokljun. Other more common species include the common buzzard (Buteo buteo), snowfinch (Montifringilla nivalis), rock nuthatch (Sitta neumayer), sombre tit (Parus cinctus) and alpine chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus).
History
The history of Montenegro, like that of much of the rest of the Balkans, is long, complex, and remarkably rich. Unfortunately it is generally understood in the West only through the window of recent local conflict. The section below provides a summary of key periods and events. For further information and a more detailed account of the region’s fascinating history, see Appendix E.
Fortifications above Kotor (Route 4)
There is evidence of human habitation on the Balkan peninsula from as early as 65,000BC, and plenty has been uncovered from the Neolithic period (7000–3000BC). From around 800BC many areas of the eastern Adriatic were inhabited by the Illyrians, tribes of Indo-European origin. During the early sixth century BC the Greeks began establishing settlements and trading posts on the Adriatic coast, and during the fourth century BC the Celts expanded southwards into the region. During the third century BC the Ardiaei, an Illyrian tribe on the southern Adriatic coast, emerged as a major power in the region, first under King Agron and then Queen Teuta. The Ardiaei, and subsequently other Illyrian tribes further north, were attacked and defeated by Rome, leading to the establishment of Roman Illyricum, later divided into Pannonia and Dalmatia. Roman Illyricum was destroyed by the Huns during the fourth century AD.
The Slavs arrived during the sixth century AD, the earliest Slavonic realm on the Adriatic being an area around the Bay of Kotor and Lake Skadar, known as Zeta. Among the Slavic tribes to enter the region were the Serbs, who arrived in the seventh century, settling around the area of inland Montenegro and the modern plain of Kosovo, an area known as Raška. Zeta