patterns for different IMF orientations from n...Figure 2.2 (a) A schematic of the magnetosphere showing closed (red) and ope...Figure 2.3 (a) The relationship between ionospheric flow, electric field, an...Figure 2.4 Schematic of (a) gyrating particles, (b) E × B drifting particles...Figure 2.5 Plasma flow in the equatorial plane of the magnetosphere. (a) The...Figure 2.6 (a) A 3‐D representation of the Earth's magnetic field (southern ...Figure 2.7 (a) A cut through the magnetosphere in the X = 0 plane, showing t...Figure 2.8 (Left) Field‐aligned current pattern associated with vorticity in...Figure 2.9 (a) Deformation of the magnetopause and resulting plasma flows fo...Figure 2.10 The ionospheric convection excited in response to combined daysi...Figure 2.11 Schematic of the formation of the substorm auroral bulge. (a) A ...Figure 2.12 Three examples of observations of the expanding/contracting pola...Figure 2.13 (Left) The topology of field lines that can undergo reconnection...Figure 2.14 Contrasting the convection patterns for southwards IMF, and for ...
3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Illustration of multiscale processes: (a) Large‐scale statistical...Figure 3.2 Schematic illustration of various types of high‐latitude mesoscal...Figure 3.3 Energy flux distribution and its temporal variation during the 7 ...Figure 3.4 (a) Energy flux; (b) SuperDARN fitted convection map; (c) vertica...Figure 3.5 Representative statistical distributions of mesoscale/small‐scale...
4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Example of dynamic polar cap density structures (from Zou et al.,...Figure 4.2 Polar cap patches detected by two different algorithms based on i...Figure 4.3 Seasonal and UT variations of the TOI or Patch to background rati...Figure 4.4 Volumetric image of a patch using RISR‐N data on 11 December 2009...Figure 4.5 Polar cap patch median profiles compared with sector median and a...Figure 4.6 (a) TEC map of the Northern Hemisphere using ground‐based receive...Figure 4.7 (a) TEC map at 0100 UT on 1 June 2013 shows the extension of SED ...Figure 4.8 Chart of the time, in s, taken to go down to 60% of the initial l...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The ionospheric ion upflow and outflow.Figure 5.2 Pathways of ionospheric outflow on the dynamics of the SW‐M‐I sys...Figure 5.3 The velocity‐dependent landing of O+ ion outflow.Figure 5.4 Solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field for the 31 August 20...Figure 5.5 The 31 August 2005 storm characteristics: (a) simulated O+ outflo...Figure 5.6 (Left panels) Outflow fluxes for (top) case A and (bottom) case B at 6 RE...Figure 5.7 Logarithm density of the total fluid, normalized to proton mass f...Figure 5.8 (a) Dst and pseudo Dst for baseline, case A and case B. Total pla...Figure 5.9 Morphology of average ion outflow from simulation C after the sim...Figure 5.10 Sequence showing the sawtooth mechanism for one oscillation from...Figure 5.11 Simulated magnetic inclination angle θ = sin−1(Bz/B) ...Figure 5.12 Superposed epoch analysis of magnetic inclination angle near geo...Figure 5.13 Solar‐wind parameters for the 18 April 2002 storm used as upstre...Figure 5.14 Magnetic flux for observed (black) taken from Huang and Cai (200...Figure 5.15 Comparison of magnetic field taken at GOES 8 and 10 (black) with...Figure 5.16 The mass loading process on the dayside magnetopause through ion...Figure 5.17 (a) The local dayside reconnection rate and (b) the integrated d...Figure 5.18 Magnetic pressure in the equatorial plane calculated from (a) ba...Figure 5.19 Magnetic field lines in (a) the baseline simulation and (b) the ...
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Azimuth scan observations with the Millstone Hill radar provide a...Figure 6.2 Aggregation of 5 minutes of Northern Hemisphere GPS TEC observati...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Overview of all Cluster density measurements based on spacecraft ...Figure 7.2 Characteristic distributions of the data set. Panel (a): Density ...Figure 7.3 Definition of reference volumes in northern and southern lobes us...Figure 7.4 Distributions similar to Figure 7.2a, but now only containing mea...Figure 7.5 Possible explanations for north‐south differences. (a) Difference...
8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 A scenario of subauroral ionospheric heating due to wave‐particle...Figure 8.2 (Top row) Frequency‐time spectrograms for the electric fields in ...Figure 8.3 (a)–(c) The r.m.s. amplitude of wave electric fields δElh (s...Figure 8.4 Cluster, Polar, and RBSP‐B 1‐500 eV (top) H+ and (bottom) electro...Figure 8.5 SAPSWS detecteds by RBSP‐A on 17 March 2015. The same format as F...Figure 8.6 The rms amplitude of wave electric fields (δElh (solid black...Figure 8.7 Ionospheric structures during the SAID events on (a) 8 April 2004...Figure 8.8 Ionospheric structures during the 17 March 2015 SAPSWS events. Th...Figure 8.9 Storm-time strong SAPSWS observed by DMSP F14 and F15 on 6 April...Figure 8.10 Variation of the relative plasma density with (a) εi−n...Figure 8.11 (a) The spectral power of plasma irregularities during the scint...Figure 8.12 The rate coefficient for the reaction (1) with N2: Pluses “+” sh...Figure 8.13 (a) Rate coefficient for the vibrational excitation (V = 0 → V >...Figure 8.14 (a) The low‐frequency electric field amplitude (the red line) an...
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Local time and seasonal dependence of F‐region quiet‐time average...Figure 9.2